Modeling of fouling in cross-flow microfiltration of suspensions

Cross-flow filtration of fine suspensions through microsieves occurs in microprocessing. The interaction of particles with surfaces in microenvironments has been extensively studied, but predominantly in monolayers and not with an eye to microfiltration. Here, we introduce a microfiltration model that pertains to particles that might be seen as fine in a macroscopic environment, but are large enough to intrude significantly into the shear layer of a microchannel. Thus, particle accumulation upon the sieve couples the steady-state filtrate flux and the suspension flow through the microchannel that feeds the sieve. We envision and create a stable, stationary multilayer of particles whose thickness is shear-limited and we identify and verify the structure and parameters that limit steady filtration in this environment. At first, a packed bed of particles forms, growing into and regulated by the micro channel's shear flow. A critical shear stress is shown to determine the thickness of the bed, seen as a stationary and stable multilayer of particles through which filtration may occur. As the bed thickens, at the expense of channel area for suspension flow, surface shear stress increases until no further particle adherence is possible. We built a simple example using hard noninteracting polymer microspheres and conducted cross-flow filtration experiments over Aquamarijn™ microsieves (uniform pore size of 0.8 μm). We observed a steady cake-layer thickness and because of the simple geometry afforded by uniform spheres, we could approximate the force balance, cake resistance, and filtration rate from first principles. The good fit of our data to the proposed mechanism lays a firm basis for the semiquantitative analysis of the behavior of more complex suspensions. © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 65: 207–213, 2019     

低膜面流速下曝气对管式膜水力特性及膜污染影响

采用曝气强化管式膜超滤高岭土混合液,考察了低膜面流速下曝气对强化膜分离过程影响,探讨了曝气对膜面水力特征及膜污染过程影响,并对过滤介质影响及膜污染阻力构成进行了研究。结果表明,在低膜面流速下,通过向管式膜引入曝气使膜表面形成气液两相流,可实现膜通量稳定保持在15L/(m²·h)以上。不仅如此,曝气的引入使膜表面雷诺数由1800~2500增至3300~4500,显著增强了膜表面湍流程度,并且实现了低膜面流速下使膜污染指数控制在较低水平,节省了运行能耗。此外,曝气的引入主要减轻了膜表面滤饼污染,使膜过滤总阻力减小且对高岭土截留效率影响不大,但强烈的膜面传质使高岭土粒径有减小趋势,并且膜表面形成污染阻力以不可逆污染层为主,不利于膜污染长周期控制。     

错流微滤制备动态膜过程中细微颗粒沉积机理

以煤基炭膜为基膜,以ZrO₂为涂膜颗粒,在实验研究的基础上对错流微滤过程中沉积颗粒进行受力分析,分别建立径向颗粒的可能沉积临界粒径模型、轴向上颗粒的可能移动临界粒径模型和圆周方向的颗粒可能滚动临界粒径模型。并以温度、错流速率、渗透通量为主要影响参数,分别对3种临界粒径模型进行模拟研究,探讨颗粒沉积机理。结果表明,压力增大(渗透通量提高)、温度降低以及错流速度降低,都可增大动态膜层厚度;由于净重力的影响,在水平膜管内圆周方向动态膜膜层厚度分布不均匀通过增加错流速率可明显减小此种差异;模拟结果与实验结果的一致性证实了所建模型的可靠性。     

Modeling of the concentration polarization in cross-flow microfiltration of highly viscous media

A model for calculating the concentration polarization profile in cross-flow microfiltration in a plate-and-frame module is developed for cases where the diffusivity depends on the shear rate of the medium. This model can be used to analyze the effect of the hydrodynamic conditions, concentration, and geometric characteristics on the concentration polarization. The solution proposed is a submodel that can be used to develop a systems methodology for calculating ultra-and microfiltration processes. The concentration profiles are calculated.     

Permeate flux decline in cross-flow microfiltration at constant pressure

Microfiltration processes are frequently used to separate solids from aqueous suspensions. The rejection of suspended matter is facilitated by means of a size exclusion mechanism and is affected by membrane properties, characteristics of the suspension and operating conditions. Therefore, the filtration performance of a single polymeric hollow-fibre membrane was investigated by monitoring the permeate flux decline for a filtration at constant transmembrane pressure (TMP). For these bench-scale experiments, a model suspension consisting of silica particles in xanthan gum solutions was used in order to represent the characteristics of biological suspensions such as activated sludge properly. In the framework of this study, it was confirmed that the permeate flux declines rapidly during the first stage of filtration until an equilibrium of particle deposition and entrainment is reached. The steady-state permeate flux was found to increase with an increase in cross-flow velocity, a decrease in solid concentration, a decrease in particle size (for this ratio of particle to pore diameter) and a decrease in apparent viscosity of the suspension. However, the equilibrium permeate flux was not affected by variations in TMP, which is in agreement with the limiting flux theory.     

Flux enhancement and cake formation in air-sparged cross-flow microfiltration

The flux enhancement in cross-flow microfiltration of submicron particles by sparged air-bubble is studied. The effects of operating conditions, such as air-bubble velocity, suspension velocity and filtration pressure, on the cake properties and filtration flux are discussed thoroughly. The results show that the pseudo-steady filtration flux increases as the air-bubble velocity and filtration pressure increase. The sparged air-bubble can significantly improve filtration flux, but the flux enhancement is more remarkable in the lower air-bubble velocity region. A gas–liquid two-phase flow model is adopted for estimating the shear stress acting on the membrane surface under various operating conditions. The cake mass can be significantly reduced by increasing the shear stress acting on the membrane surface. However, the SEM analysis illustrates that the particle packing structure becomes more compact as the air-bubble velocity increases. This results in a slightly higher average specific cake filtration resistance under higher air-bubble velocity. Consequently, a minimum flux occurs at the critical shear stress, e.g., τ_w = 1.1 N/m² in this study, when these effects are both taken into consideration. As the shear stress increases by increasing the suspension or gas-bubble velocity, the filtration flux decreases in the low shear stress region but, on the contrary, quickly increases in the high shear stress region. Furthermore, a force balance model is derived for understanding the particle deposition on the membrane surface. The relationship among filtration flux, shear stress and overall filtration resistance is obtained and verified by experimental data.     

Modeling of turbulent cross flow microfiltration of pomegranate juice using hollow fiber membranes

A mathematical analysis of the permeate flux decline during microfiltration of fruit juice with hollow fibers under turbulent flow is presented. Impact of complex fluid flow phenomena on mass transfer is analyzed. A comprehensive analytical model for developing concentration boundary layer was formulated from first principles using integral method. Attempts to model the system considering constant boundary layer thickness (film theory) is inaccurate for developing boundary layer. Gel resistance parameter depending on juice characteristics has significant impact on permeate flux. Specific gel layer concentration has insignificant effect on system performance under total recycle mode but important for batch mode. Theoretical results were compared with experiments in clarification of pomegranate juice with poly(ether ether ketone) and polysulfone hollow fiber membranes. The physical parameters of complex mixture were evaluated by optimizing of the flux profiles in total recycle mode of operation and were successfully applied for prediction of batch mode performance. © 2014 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J 60: 4279–4291, 2014     

Investigation of cake deposition on various parts of the surface of microfiltration membrane due to fouling

The accumulation of deposited layer on membrane surface in cross-flow microfiltration was investigated. This study provides a basis for elucidation of the membrane segments with superior tendency for cake deposition due to fouling. A commercially available GVWP membrane was fouled with a colored (blue indigo suspension in water) feed. The deposition pattern or fouling tendency was obtained using a digital camera, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and image analysis. The effects of feed concentration, transmembrane pressure and cross-flow velocity on cake deposition were investigated. In the early stages of the filtration trials, cake deposition was increased from the commencement portion (feed inlet) towards the furthermost part (concentrate outlet) of the membrane surface. However, at the completion of filtration, no pronounced difference was realized between cake deposition in the median and end parts of the membrane. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling of the membrane was carried out to predict the fouling behavior in various segments of the membrane at different operating conditions. The results of CFD modeling are in acceptable agreement with the experimental data. Accomplishment of the membrane sections with higher tendency for accumulation of foulants may provide a basis for manipulation of conditions to diminish the buildup of fouling deposition in the proposed segments. This results in lower cake deposition on vital parts to minimize the overall fouling.     

Theoretical analysis of the effects of asymmetric membrane structure on fouling during microfiltration

There is a growing interest in the use of both asymmetric and composite membranes for microfiltration and ultrafiltration processes. This includes particle removal applications in the semiconductor industry and virus clearance in biopharmaceutical applications. Filter fouling plays an important role in these processes. Although flux decline models have been developed for homogeneous membranes, the effects of asymmetric membrane structure on flux decline behavior remain poorly understood on a fundamental level. Here, we develop a theoretical model to describe the effects of asymmetric membrane structure on flux decline. The asymmetric structure was described by the spatial variation in Darcy permeability in the directions normal to and parallel to the membrane surface. The velocity profile and flux decline because of pore blockage were described using Darcy's law and a pore blockage and cake filtration model. Flux decline data were obtained using pseudocomposite membranes with highly interconnected polyvinylidene fluoride membranes (PVDF) and straight through pore polycarbonate track‐etched membranes (PCTE). Model composite membranes were formed by layering PCTE or PVDF membranes with different pore sizes on top of each other. Flux decline data for the composite membrane were in good agreement with model calculations. The results provide important insights into the effects of asymmetric membrane pore structures on flux decline. © 2009 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2009     

高黏度液体错流旋转微滤实验研究

Experimental investigation of the microfiltration （MF） using a revolving cross-flow membrane filter was performed under the condition of constant pressure difference, and different flat membranes made of polyvinylidene fluoride （PVDF, 0.1 μm）, cellulose acetate （CA, 0.22 μm）, sulfonated polyethersulfone （SPES, 0.22 μm） and polyamide （PA, 0.45 μm）, respectively, were used in filtration experiments. The dependence of the filtrate mass of the cross-flow MF on time was measured on-line. The experimental results showed that the effect of the cross-flow on high viscosity medium was more significant than that on the low viscosity one.     

Application of cross-flow microfiltration to semi-hard cheese production from milk retentates

In the cheese industry, the concentration of milk using ultrafiltration for continuous soft and fresh cheese production is standard technology. The object of the work presented here was to produce a semi-hard cheese of quality and composition comparable to that of traditionally made cheese from highly concentrated microfiltered milk retentate. Two different membrane systems were tested for the production of high viscous milk retentate with high dry matter content. For milk containing 3.2% fat and skim milk, a concentration factor of 6.6 and 9.1 respectively was obtained using the MF/UF/UF pilot plant fitted with cassette modules. Milk containing 3.2% fat was concentrated in batches by a factor of 5.7 in the pilot plant using a ceramic membrane. Using minimal curd separation, a semi-hard one day old cheese with a dry matter of 533 g/kg, moisture on a fat-free basis (MFFB) of 626 g/kg and fat on a dry basis (FDB) value of 478 g/kg was made from the milk retentate produced with the ceramic module. The ripened cheese fulfilled the legal requirements of a traditionally produced semi-hard cheese with superb sensory qualities. Using the MF/UF/UF plant, a dry matter of 495 g/kg (MFFB 669 g/kg, FDB 493 g/kg) was achieved in a semi-hard cheese made from skim milk retentate. Our results suggest that by using a larger spacer distance in the last loop of the MF/UF/UF plant, combined with new hybrid technologies, semi-hard cheese production from full concentrate milk will soon become possible.     

Inclining filtration and enhanced backwash for initial fouling control in microfiltration

It is believed that rapid membrane fouling generally occurs at early-stage of filtration. The operating parameters have great effects on membrane performance. As a result, conducting filtration with appropriate conditions in initial stage may improve membrane efficiency. Therefore, we propose the idea of improving membrane performance by controlling initial operating parameters. Two strategies are employed for this purpose: enhanced backwash and inclining filtration. During initial period of operation, backwash frequency is increased (enhanced backwash) or/and flux is increased from the sub-critical flux to the critical or the supra-critical flux (inclining filtration). To evaluate the effects of these strategies, synthetic water simulating a river is treated through microfiltration (MF) of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane at dead-end mode. The study results showed that initial enhanced backwash causes more fouling than normal backwash. Instead, filtration without initial backwash successfully reduces fouling. Inclining filtration is found effective in fouling reduction. Rapid fouling progress is successfully suppressed by employing filtration at low flux during initial operation.     

Membrane fouling prevention in crossflow microfiltration by the use of electric fields

From an analysis of fluid velocity and electric field profiles the trajectory of particles through crossflow microfiltration units has been calculated. A tubular geometry filter leads to the most effective use of electrical power, when it is used as an aid to prevent membrane fouling. Results for plate, tubular and mutitube filters are given. Some experimental data from a tubular filter are presented, which demonstrate typical effects of the important parameters.     

Clarification of pomegranate juice by microfiltration with PVDF membranes

Microfiltration was used to clarify pomegranate juice using two polyvinylidene fluoride membranes with pore sizes of 0.22 and 0.45 μm. Changes were studied in the chemical properties of the juice after passing through each membrane. Characteristics such as turbidity changed for both membranes (more than 95%). The permeate flux decreased over time as a result of membrane fouling. The degree of decline in the membrane with pore size of 0.22 μm was greater than another one. In both membranes, fouling resistance increased over time from 5 × 10⁹ m²/kg to 4.43 × 10¹⁰ m²/kg for 0.22 μm and to 1.29 × 10¹⁰ m²/kg for 0.45 μm after 45 min. This increase had a sharp slope in the first stages of the testing. Fouling index changes over time showed similar behavior. Scanning electron microscopy images showed that the cake layer had the greatest impact on membrane fouling after processing by preventing turbid components from entering pores.     

Investigation of fouling mechanisms governing permeate flux in the crossflow microfiltration of beer

The local phenomenology associated with membrane fouling has been investigated experimentally at laboratory scale for the crossflow microfiltration (CMF) of beer. Two downstream membrane processes were involved: clarification and sterilisation of beer. Fouling mechanisms were interpreted and compared for two types of beer (clarified beer and rough beer), filtered through a track-etched 0.2 μm polycarbonate membrane. Flux decay was analysed by using the combination of the constant pressure blocking filtration laws with the measurement of membrane resistances arranged in series. It was found that for both types of beer the permeate flux was governed by two identical fouling mechanisms: an internal fouling of pores at the initial stages of filtration that conforms to the standard blocking model, followed by an external surface fouling conforming to the cake filtration model. It was shown that the predominant membrane resistance arises from the build-up of a loosely bound and reversible fouling layer over the membrane surface (representing more than 80% of the total filtration resistance). Macrosolutes and colloids are likely to be involved both in the progressive pore plugging and in the external fouling layer (in combination with the yeast cells cake in the case of rough beer), because of their high tendency to interact with porous material. Thus the relevance of using the so-called classical filtration laws for the investigation of fouling mechanisms in terms of total resistance of the membrane in beer CMF has been demonstrated.     

The cross-flow microfiltration of problematic surface and river waters to produce potable water

Cross-flow microfiltration (CFMF) using a polyester fabric hose support has been successfully used to treat a range of problematic waters.A prototype CFMF unit with a production capacity of up to 200 kl/d has been constructed and operated at a water works to produce water with a lower turbidity than that produced by alum coagulation, settling and filtration. A calcium carbonate precoat was used on the tubes. This has a significant effect on the permeate rate and quality.The process has also been used to treat polluted water to a reverse osmosis feed standard. A silt density index (SDI) of 3.1 was obtained after treating cooling tower blow-down water. Sewage works tertiary effluent was treated in a CFMF unit using a range of precoats. A seven fold increase in permeate flux and an improved permeate quality was obtained through the selection of the correct precoat layer.     

果胶酶对柑橘汁的澄清效果研究

直接用果胶酶对柑橘汁的澄清进行了单因素实验及正交实验.单因素实验结果表明,果胶酶用量为0.08～0.10 g·L-1、温度为30～40℃、pH值为3.0～4.5条件下,果胶酶对柑橘汁澄清处理的效果较好.正交实验确定果胶酶对柑橘汁澄清的最佳工艺条件是:果胶酶用量0.10 g·L-1、温度40℃、pH值4.0.     

陶瓷膜微滤骨架镍催化剂的膜污染机理分析

用孔径为0.2μm的陶瓷膜过滤骨架镍催化剂悬浮液,研究膜污染机理。结果表明,膜污染主要是骨架镍催化剂在膜表面上形成的滤饼层,当操作压力循环变化时滤饼层表现出不可逆性。工业上用过的污染膜和滤饼层的组分分析表明,污染物主要是骨架镍催化剂。应用结果也表明了膜污染原因是骨架镍催化剂在膜表面形成了不可逆性滤饼层。     

Modeling of the heat transfer in cross-flow heat exchangers

The heat transfer in plate heat exchangers with cross flows of heat-transfer media is considered. At constant values of thermophysical parameters using a model of a one-dimensional flow in cach channel, analytical expressions for the temperature and heat flux distributions are obtained. The efficiency of heat exchangers at different values of dimensionless parameters is estimated. A model is proposed to take into account the two-dimensional flow of heat-transfer media in channels on the basis of empirical relations for the flow resistance and the heat transfer in flat channels.     

陶瓷膜澄清厚朴水提液膜污染机理的研究

采用一个经典模型描述了厚朴水提液过滤过程中的通量衰减,通过模型参数分析了膜的污染机理。分析结果表明孔径为50,200,500 nm的陶瓷膜主要由"完全孔堵塞"机理、"滤饼过滤"机理和"部分孔堵塞"机理控制;通过此污染机理的分析来指导膜清洗,孔径为50,200,500 nm的陶瓷膜清洗后分别恢复了84.5%,89.4%和90.0%左右;实验表明孔径为200 nm的陶瓷膜较适合厚朴水提液体系。