Cost-efficient emission abatement of energy and transportation technologies: mitigation costs and policy impacts for Belgium

In the light of global warming, this paper develops a framework to compare energy and transportation technologies in terms of cost-efficient GHG emission reduction. We conduct a simultaneous assessment of economic and environmental performances through life cycle costing and life cycle assessment. To calculate the GHG mitigation cost, we create reference systems within the base scenario. Further, we extend the concept of the mitigation cost, allowing (i) comparision of technologies given a limited investment resource, and (ii) evaluation of the direct impact of policy measures by means of the subsidized mitigation cost. The framework is illustrated with a case of solar photovoltaics (PV), grid powered battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and solar powered BEVs for a Belgian small and medium sized enterprise. The study’s conclusions are that the mitigation cost of solar PV is high, even though this is a mature technology. The emerging mass produced BEVs on the other hand are found to have a large potential for cost-efficient GHG mitigation as indicated by their low cost of mitigation. Finally, based on the subsidized mitigation cost, we conclude that the current financial stimuli for all three investigated technologies are excessive when compared to the CO₂ market value under the EU Emission Trading Scheme.     

The impact of policy mixes on new energy vehicle diffusion in China

Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy - The Chinese government has instituted a number of policies to actively promote the diffusion of new energy vehicles (NEVs). There is widespread...     

我国新能源汽车空调技术专利发展概况

在追求节能、环保的大趋势下,采用燃料电池、混合动力、氢能、太阳能等作为驱动力的新能源汽车已经成为全球汽车产业的必然发展方向。新能源的使用会使汽车结构出现相应变化,因此,新能源汽车空调技术也需要配套发展应运而生。本文对我国新能源汽车空调专利技术发展概况作出了总结、分析,让读者对该领域技术发展现状有所了解。     

Materials,technological status,and fundamentals of PEM fuel cells – A review

PEM (Polymer Electrolyte Membrane) fuel cells have the potential to reduce our energy use, pollutant emissions, and dependence on fossil fuels. In the past decade, significant advances have been achieved for commercializing the technology. For example, several PEM fuel cell buses are currently rated at the technical readiness stage of full-scale validation in realistic driving environments and have met or closely met the ultimate 25,000-h target set by the U.S. Department of Energy. So far, Toyota has sold more than 4000 Mirai PEM fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). Over 30 hydrogen gas stations are being operated throughout the U.S. and over 60 in Germany. In this review, we cover the material, design, fundamental, and manufacturing aspects of PEM fuel cells with a focus on the portable, automobile, airplane, and space applications that require careful consideration in system design and materials. The technological status and challenges faced by PEM fuel cells toward their commercialization in these applications are described and explained. Fundamental issues that are key to fuel cell design, operational control, and material development, such as water and thermal management, dynamic operation, cold start, channel two-phase flow, and low-humidity operation, are discussed. Fuels and fuel tanks pertinent to PEM fuel cells are briefly evaluated.The objective of this review is three fold: (1) to present the latest status of PEM fuel cell technology development and applications in the portable and transportation power through an overview of the state of the art and most recent technological advances; (2) to describe materials and water/thermal transport management for fuel cell design and operational control; and (3) to outline major challenges in the technology development and the needs for fundamental research for the near future and prior to fuel cell world-wide deployment.     

Life cycle optimization of building energy systems

A life cycle optimization model intended to potentially reduce the environmental impacts of energy use in commercial buildings is presented. A combination of energy simulation, life cycle assessment, and operations research techniques are used to develop the model. In addition to conventional energy systems, such as the electric grid and a gas boiler, cogeneration systems which concurrently generate power and heat are investigated as an alternative source of energy. Cogeneration systems appeared to be an attractive alternative to conventional systems when considering life cycle environmental criteria. Internal combustion engine and microturbine (MT) cogeneration systems resulted in a reduction of up to 38% in global warming potential compared with conventional systems, while solid oxide fuel cell and MT cogeneration systems resulted in a reduction of up to 94% in tropospheric ozone precursor potential (TOPP). Results include a Pareto-optimal frontier between reducing costs and reducing the selected environmental indicators.     

Transforming the energy sector: the evolution of technological systems in renewable energy technology

This paper analyses the development and diffusion of technologiesthat utilize renewable energy sources in Germany, Sweden andthe Netherlands. The analysis enlarges the life cycle modelof industry evolution to one where the focus is on the formationand evolution of new technological systems. Particular focusis on explaining success and failures in shifting from a formativephase into one characterized by positive feedbacks. A set ofchallenges is identified for policy makers attempting to influencethe process of transforming the energy sector.     

Life cycle assessment framework for asphalt pavements: methods to calculate and allocate energy of binder and additives

The construction, maintenance and disposal of asphalt pavements may lead to considerable environmental impacts, in terms of energy use and emissions during the life of the pavement. In order to enable quantification of the potential environmental impacts due to construction, maintenance and disposal of roads, an open life cycle assessment (LCA) framework for the asphalt pavements is presented in this paper. Emphasis was placed on the calculation and allocation of energy used for binder and additives at the project level. It was concluded from this study that when progressing from LCA to its corresponding life cycle cost, the feedstock energy of the binder becomes highly relevant as the cost of the binder will be reflected in its alternative value as fuel. Regarding additives like wax, a framework for energy allocation was suggested. The suggested project level LCA framework was demonstrated in a limited case study of a Swedish asphalt pavement. It was concluded that the asphalt production and transporting materials were the two most energy-consuming processes, emitting most greenhouse gases depending on the fuel type and electricity mix.     

Study on possible economic and environmental impacts of electric vehicle infrastructure in public road transport in Kolkata

Transport sector in India accounts for 20 % of total commercial energy demand of the country, of which a considerable amount is consumed in the form of liquid and gaseous fuel. A major part of these fuels are imported by the Government. Apart from the import expenditure, Government of India has subsidized these fuels to make it available at affordable prices. To check the financial burden and achieve environmental benefits, technical advancement in present system or alternative infrastructure is required. The present study examines the possible impacts on economy and environment by the implementation of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) along with the conventional road transport system in metropolitans with a case study of Kolkata. The major impact has been observed in controlling the vehicular emission with a decrease in CO₂ level by 26.27 t per day, on replacement of only 2 % of the present public transport by suitable BEVs. Maintaining similar service for the passengers the electrical energy required by the alternative vehicles has been estimated to be 41,766 kWh per day. This energy has been proposed to be supplied by remodeled fuel stations equipped with solar photovoltaic systems, if charging strategy is based on renewable sources. In case of fuel economy, the infrastructure has shown the potential in reducing the consumption of diesel and autogas (LPG) by 11,654 and 3,256 liter per day, respectively.     

Assessment of bioenergy production from mid-rotation thinning of hardwood plantation: life cycle assessment and cost analysis

Forestry thinning logs, a low-value by-product of the forestry industry, present an opportunity for bioenergy production. It can be converted into solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels via different conversion techniques. Comparative life cycle assessment and life cycle costing (LCC) analysis were conducted to evaluate six options: woodchip gasification for power generation; wood pellets gasification in combined heat and power plant; wood pellet combustion for domestic water and space heating; pyrolysis for power generation; pyrolysis with bio-oil upgrading to transportation fuels; and ethanol production for transportation fuel mix. The functional unit used in this study was the treatment of 1 Mg of biomass. Global warming; acidification; eutrophication; fossil depletion, human toxicity; and land use impact categories were considered. The LCC also included greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions costs. The effects of uncertainties in the system on the overall performance of the scenarios were also evaluated. The results showed that all options except for ethanol production are GHG emission negative. Woodchips gasification performed best in all environmental impact categories and had the lowest LCC ($177.6/Mg). Biomass drying consumed more than 50% of the energy requirement for all options except for production of liquid transportation fuels via upgrading of pyrolytic oil, in which case the fuel upgrading process was the most energy intensive. In terms of energy return, all options, except electricity production through pyrolysis, offered positive return. The results highlight the importance of using biomass with least possible processing in order to maximise environmental and energy return and minimise LCC.     

电动汽车和相关电源材料的现状与前景

论述了电动汽车（EV）、电动汽车用镍氢电池、锂离子电池、质子交换膜燃料电池（PEMFC）、固体氧化物燃料电池（SOFC）及相关材料的研发现状、产业化前景，指出以电动汽车代替燃油内燃机汽车，以氢能代替碳基燃料，是当前运输业的主要发展方向。     

Development of fast fabrication method for cylindrical-shaped grids and mechanical properties of CFRP pressure vessel reinforced with cylindrical-shaped grids

In order to reduce carbon dioxide and air pollution emissions, fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are being developed, and CFRP pressure vessels have been used as the hydrogen storage systems for the FCVs. Since the FCVs are expected to increase driving distances of at least over 500 km, which is similar to those of conventional gasoline-fueled vehicles, the storage pressure of hydrogen must be raised from 35 to 70 MPa. It is important to decrease the amount of carbon fibers in order to reduce the cost and weight of the CFRP pressure vessels. In this study, a fast fabrication method for the cylindrical-shaped grids (CSG) composed of hoop stiffeners and helical stiffeners was developed with a particular mandrel and a 3-axis filament winding apparatus. Then, the CFRP pressure vessel was inserted into the CSG, and burst tests of the CFRP pressure vessels reinforced with and without the CSG were conducted. Moreover, their experimental results were compared with numerical ones obtained by a FEM analysis, and the mechanical properties and the reinforcement effects of the CFRP pressure vessels reinforced with the CSG were investigated.     

Hydrogen energy

The problem of anthropogenically driven climate change and its inextricable link to our global society's present and future energy needs are arguably the greatest challenge facing our planet. Hydrogen is now widely regarded as one key element of a potential energy solution for the twenty-first century, capable of assisting in issues of environmental emissions, sustainability and energy security. Hydrogen has the potential to provide for energy in transportation, distributed heat and power generation and energy storage systems with little or no impact on the environment, both locally and globally. However, any transition from a carbon-based (fossil fuel) energy system to a hydrogen-based economy involves significant scientific, technological and socio-economic barriers. This brief report aims to outline the basis of the growing worldwide interest in hydrogen energy and examines some of the important issues relating to the future development of hydrogen as an energy vector.     

Application potential of high performance steels for weight reduction and efficiency increase in commercial vehicles

The fast-growing economy and the gradually established highway system have boosted the road transportation for both passenger and cargo over the last decade in China.From 2000 to 2010 Chinese GDP increased by around10.15%annually and the sales of medium and heavy trucks by around 18.87%(sales increased from 0.2 million in 2000 to 1.3 million in 2010) according to the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China.Today commercial vehicles consume almost the same amount of fuel as passenger cars in China although the number of commercial vehicles is only about one fourth of passenger cars.It is estimated that around 50%of imported fuel to China each year will be consumed by vehicle transportation.This situation will worsen fuel shortage problems in the long run and at the same time it is partially responsible for the everworsening air pollution in China.Due to the widespread overloading in China,lightweight development in commercial vehicles has fallen far behind that of passenger cars with the consequences that Chinese commercial vehicles consume in average about 20%more fuel,especially the heavy trucks,compared to European models.Under these circumstances it is essential to reduce the vehicle fuel consumption and increase the transport efficiency.The key solution thereby is to implement lightweight design in commercial vehicles as it has been successfully practiced over the last decade in the passenger cars.This paper summarizes highlights given in presentations during the "International seminar on the application of high strength steels in light weight commercial vehicles" with the focus on the development and application of Nb alloyed high performance steels made for lightweight commercial vehicles.     

罐装薯片包装的生命周期评价

对罐装薯片包装进行了生命周期评价,包括从原材料的获取、生产加工,工厂、消费者的运输,到包装容器的使用、二次回收使用,废弃物处理等包装的生命周期环节,对其能量消耗、环境影响等进行了评价。分析结果表明:纸铝塑复合包装的环境负荷主要体现在原材料的获取阶段,集中在燃料能源的消耗,其中纸材料加工的环境负荷要大于塑料与铝;填埋、焚烧、再利用这3种处置方式对环境的影响主要集中在化石燃料的消耗、土地占用和无机物对人体的损害上。因此,在维持现有结构的情况下,实行材料减量化和容器轻量化是提高包装环保适性最直接、有效的途径。     

燃料电池汽车用加氢站有关问题探讨

作为地面加注系统的加氢站对于燃料电池汽车的发展有着积极的推动作用。简述了国内外加氢站的发展现状,针对我国加氢站建设中的关键问题和车载储罐的研制进行分析,对我国加氢站的自主研发和氢能利用有一定的参考价值。     

Techno-Economic Challenges of Fuel Cell Commercialization

As resource scarcity, extreme climate change, and pollution levels increase, economic growth must rely on more environmentally friendly and efficient production processes. Fuel cells are an ideal alternative to internal combustion (IC) engines and boilers on the path to greener industries because of their high efficiency and environmentally friendly operation. However, as a new energy technology, significant market penetration of fuel cells has not yet been achieved. In this paper, we perform a techno-economic and environmental analysis of fuel cell systems using life cycle and value chain activities. First, we investigate the procedure of fuel cell development and identify what activities should be undertaken according to fuel cell life cycle activities, value chain activities, and end-user acceptance criteria. Next, we present a unified learning of the institutional barriers in fuel cell commercialization. The primary end-user acceptance criteria are function, cost, and reliability; a fuel cell should outperform these criteria compared with its competitors, such as IC engines and batteries, to achieve a competitive advantage. The repair and maintenance costs of fuel cells (due to low reliability) can lead to a substantial cost increase and decrease in availability, which are the major factors for end-user acceptance. The fuel cell industry must face the challenge of how to overcome this reliability barrier. This paper provides a deeper insight into our work over the years on the main barriers to fuel cell commercialization, and discusses the potential pivotal role of fuel cells in a future low-carbon green economy. It also identifies the needs and points out some directions for this future low-carbon economy. Green energy, supplied with fuel cells, is truly the business mode of the future. Striving for a more sustainable development of economic growth by adopting green public investments and implementing policy initiatives encourages environmentally responsible industrial investments.     

Life cycle activity analysis: logistics and environmental policies for bottled water in Portugal

An innovative mathematical programming decision support model –Life Cycle Activity Analysis (LCAA)– is presented, integrating considerations of optimal allocations of resources and impacts upon the environment during the life cycle of products. LCAA is based on the classical formulation of activity analysis and on the life cycle assessment framework. The concept of linear activities is extended to embrace mass and energy fluxes over the entire life cycle of products including their environmental impacts. Special attention is given to the presence of loops in the product chains, such as those occurring when materials/products are recovered (reused, recycled.). An application brought from the Portuguese bottled water industry is described. The model features alternative activities for production technologies and product recovery strategies and permits the joint consideration of monetary costs and environmental burdens. The results obtained under five scenarios, including distinct disposal strategies and environmental constraints, are discussed.     

工业节能降耗的全生命周期成本研究

基于节能降耗与可持续发展,将全生命周期成本分析方法用于工业节能降耗的研究,对工业产品的全生命周期成本及能耗进行了分析．在利用LCC方法分析工艺全生命周期成本的同时,还考虑了影响能源消耗的成本因素．力图在兼顾节能降耗的同时,考虑企业成本最小化与利益最大化,为有效指导工业节能降耗生产、合理选择工艺设施提供了新的思路,也为设备规划和选型、计算设备的经济寿命、管理控制设备投资以及项目的方案论证等提供方法和工具．     

典型锂电池中间相炭微球负极材料生产的能耗与碳排放分析

中间相炭微球(MCMB)负极材料作为新型材料受到了社会的关注,同时其制造所带来的环境污染也逐渐增加。本工作针对锂电池MCMB材料开展了全生命周期能耗与碳排放研究, 功能单位定义为生产1 t MCMB负极材料产品,系统边界包括原料获取、能源供应与材料生产阶段,分析了MCMB材料全生命周期的能耗结构,辨识了碳排放的关键影响因素。能耗分析结果显示,1 t MCMB负极材料的全生命周期能耗为149.37 GJ,初级能耗结构为原煤(82.82%)、原油(11.03%)、天然气(6.15%),能源生产阶段对生命周期能耗的贡献度为80.81%。碳排放分析结果显示,生产1 t MCMB负极材料的碳排放总量为11 824.61 kg CO₂-eq,电力、中温沥青和焦炉煤气消耗量对碳排放计算结果的影响最为显著,调整能源结构是降低MCMB负极材料生产碳排放的有效手段。     

Synthesis of regional networks for the supply of energy and bioproducts

This article presents a method for the synthesis of regional renewable energy supply chains, based on Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP). This method addresses the challenges presented by biomass resources. The main challenges are the distributive and varied availabilities regarding both location and time. This work also aims to maximise the economically viable utilisation of resources, accounting for the competition between energy and food production. A four-layer supply chain superstructure has been developed, which includes the harvesting, preparation, core processing and distribution of products. This considered system’s boundaries involve a region, which is then divided into zones for optimising conversion operations and transportation flows. An MILP model has been formulated with profit maximisation as the optimisation criterion. The environmental impact is evaluated by the carbon footprint. The sensitivity of the optimal solutions is analysed for different regions’ sizes, transportation costs, pre-processing alternatives and the co-production of food and energy.