Co-occurring delinquency and depressive symptoms of adolescent boys and girls: A dual trajectory modeling approach.

Co-occurring trajectories of delinquent behavior and depressive symptoms and their correlates were examined in a longitudinal sample of 985 middle-adolescent boys and girls (mean age = 15.54 years at Time 1). Dual trajectory analysis was used to identify the co-occurring trajectories. For boys (n = 472), 4 delinquency and 4 depression trajectory groups were found. For girls (n = 513), 3 delinquency and 3 depression trajectory groups were identified. The linkage between co-occurring trajectories was higher for girls than for boys. Stressful life events and childhood precursors of the outcomes predicted trajectory group membership for both genders fairly consistently. Findings suggest heterogeneity in developmental courses of delinquent behavior and depressive symptoms across adolescent boys and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence.

This 4-yr longitudinal study of 191 girls and 185 boys living in intact families in the rural Midwest examines the trajectories of life events and depressive symptoms in adolescence. The trajectories of depressive symptoms differ between boys and girls. Compared with boys, girls experienced a greater number of depressive symptoms after age 13. Changes in uncontrollable events are associated with the increases in girls' but not boys' depressive symptoms. Latent growth curve analyses show that, over 4 yrs, (1) depressive symptoms for girls changed according to a curvilinear pattern that is associated with changes in stressful events; (2) the level of depressive symptoms is related to the level of life events for both boys and girls; and (3) change in depressive symptoms is significantly related to change in stressful events only for girls. Girls living with less supportive mothers are more vulnerable to negative life changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does adolescent alcohol and marijuana use predict suppressed growth in psychosocial maturity among male juvenile offenders?

Multiple theories suggest mechanisms by which the use of alcohol and drugs during adolescence could dampen growth in psychosocial maturity. However, scant empirical evidence exists to support this proposition. The current study tested whether alcohol and marijuana use predicted suppressed growth in psychosocial maturity among a sample of male serious juvenile offenders (n = 1,170) who were followed from ages 15 to 21 years. Alcohol and marijuana use prospectively predicted lower maturity 6 months later. Moreover, boys with the greatest increases in marijuana use showed the smallest increases in psychosocial maturity. Finally, heterogeneity in the form of age-related alcohol and marijuana trajectories was related to growth in maturity, such that only boys who decreased their alcohol and marijuana use significantly increased in psychosocial maturity. Taken together, these findings suggest that patterns of elevated alcohol and marijuana use in adolescence may suppress age-typical growth in psychosocial maturity from adolescence to young adulthood, but that effects are not necessarily permanent, because decreasing use is associated with increases in maturity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychopathology as a predictor of adolescent drug use trajectories.

The authors examined early psychopathology as a predictor of trajectories of drug use from ages 13-18 years. Six years of annual data were analyzed for 506 boys using a mixed effects polynomial growth curve model. They tested whether distinct measures of psychopathology and behavioral problems (i.e., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, depression, and violence) assessed in early adolescence could prospectively predict level and change in alcohol and marijuana use. Higher levels of all of the types of psychopathology predicted higher levels of alcohol use, and higher levels of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and violence predicted higher levels of marijuana use. Only conduct disorder predicted linear growth in alcohol use, and none of the measures predicted growth in marijuana use. The results suggest that drug use prevention programs should target youths with early symptoms of psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emergence of delinquency and depressed mood throughout adolescence as predictors of late adolescent problem substance use.

Delinquency is a positive predictor of adolescent problem substance use, and depressed mood may increase risk for substance problems. The extent to which effects of delinquency and depressed mood on problem substance use vary depending on when during adolescence the predictors are assessed is unknown. The authors used 5 multigroup path analyses to examine effects of delinquency and depressed mood at ages 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16 years on problem substance use at age 18, and mediation of those effects through alcohol use at age 16 across gender. Participants were 429 rural youths (222 girls and 207 boys) and their families. Indirect positive effects of delinquency on the outcome were observed for boys; direct positive effects of depressed mood were observed for girls. Prevention implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood depressive symptoms and adolescent cigarette use: A six-year longitudinal study controlling for peer relations correlates.

Objective: To examine potential pathways between childhood depressive symptoms and adolescent cigarette use, controlling for potential “third variable” causes. Design: Participants included 250 youth (60% girls) who were in Grades 4 to 6 at study outset and in Grades 10 to 12 (M age = 16.78) at a 6-year follow-up. At Time 1, children completed measures of depressive symptoms, as well as peer nominations of peer acceptance, rejection, and aggressive behavior. Main Outcome Measures: Time 2 measures included adolescents’ own and close friends’ cigarette use, depressive symptoms, and externalizing behaviors; parents also reported on adolescent behaviors. Results: Higher levels of childhood depressive symptoms and aggressive behavior were associated longitudinally with cigarette use in adolescence. After controlling for other associations, higher levels of childhood depressive symptoms also were associated with higher levels of friends’ cigarette use in adolescence and higher levels of adolescent depressive symptoms; each of these adolescent outcomes was concurrently associated with cigarette use. Conclusion: Depressive symptoms in childhood may lead to altered developmental trajectories that either directly or indirectly contribute to adolescent outcomes, including cigarette use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A mixture-model approach to linking ADHD to adolescent onset of illicit drug use.

Prior research findings have been mixed as to whether attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is related to illicit drug use independent of conduct problems (CP). With the current study, the authors add to this literature by investigating the association between trajectories of ADHD symptoms across childhood and adolescence and onset of illicit drug use, with and without controlling for CP. In a longitudinal panel study of a community sample of 754 girls and boys recruited in kindergarten, this research question was examined with a combination of growth mixture modeling (to model parent-reported ADHD symptom trajectories) and survival analysis (to model youth-reported initiation of illicit drug use). Results revealed a 3-class model of ADHD trajectories, with 1 class exhibiting no or minimal symptoms throughout childhood and adolescence, another class showing a convex shape (an increase, then a decrease in symptoms) across time, and a third class showing a concave shape (a decrease, then a slight increase in symptoms) over time. The concave-trajectory class demonstrated significantly earlier onset of illicit drug use than the minimal-problem class, with the convex-trajectory class falling between (but not significantly different from either of the other two classes). These results did not change when the authors added CP to the model as a covariate. Implications of findings for theory and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of alcohol use among adolescent boys and girls: Identification, validation, and sociodemographic characteristics.

This longitudinal study used data from a secondary data archive of 1,619 East German adolescents (mean age, 14.05 years at the initial wave). Latent growth mixture modeling was used to identify distinctive developmental trajectories of alcohol consumption from ages 14 through 18 years. Four groups were found for both boys (rare users, late escalators, early peakers, regular users) and girls (rare users, increasers, decreasers, regular users). Further analyses showed reasonably good external validity of the identified alcohol consumption trajectories. Finally, female alcohol use trajectory groups differed in terms of financial resources (socioeconomic backgrounds), whereas male trajectory groups did not differ at all in terms of sociodemographic characteristics. Overall, evidence for gender-specific alcohol use trajectories was mixed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of change in adolescent substance use and symptomatology: Impact of paternal and maternal substance use disorders.

The effects of paternal and maternal substance use disorders (SUDs) on trajectories of change in adolescent offspring nicotine, alcohol, and drug use and symptomatology were investigated in a population-based sample of adolescent twins (N = 1,514). Adolescent and parental substance phenotypes were assessed when most adolescents were 11 years old, with 2 assessments of adolescents approximately every 3 years thereafter. Growth curves were fit using hierarchical linear modeling. Results indicated acceleration of substance involvement during adolescence, particularly for boys. Paternal and maternal SUD were each associated with more extreme trajectories. There was evidence for an additive, rather than interactive, combined parental effect. Findings help clarify the impact of paternal and maternal SUD on the development of substance involvement during adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Latent growth trajectories of substance use among pregnant and parenting adolescents.

We examine changes among adolescent girls in substance use during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Three separate latent growth curve analyses assessed the impact of psychosocial, behavioral, and sociodemographic factors on resumption of or change in use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana. The Vulnerable Populations Model for Research and Clinical Practice (Flaskerud & Winslow, 1998) provided the theoretical foundation for this study. This is a secondary analysis of data from a sample of 305 ethnic minority females (245 Latina, 60 African American), aged 13–18 years, who were pregnant at baseline and were participating in an HIV prevention study conducted in inner-city alternative schools in Los Angeles County. Data collected at 4 time points captured changes in substance use from pregnancy through the postpartum period. Baseline predictors included ethnicity/race, partner substance use, childhood abuse history, religiosity, acculturation, depressive symptoms, length of gestation at baseline, and previous substance use. Common predictors of greater resumption and/or greater level of use included greater history of use before pregnancy, partner substance use, childhood abuse, and a longer time since childbirth. African Americans were more likely to be smoking at baseline when they were still pregnant and to use marijuana postpartum; Latinas were more likely to use alcohol over the course of pregnancy and postpartum. Other variables exerted an influence on specific substances. For instance, religiosity impacted cigarette and alcohol use. Findings may assist prenatal care providers to identify and counsel pregnant adolescents at risk for perinatal substance use and to prevent resumption or initiation of substance use after childbirth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood Peer Rejection and Aggression as Predictors of Adolescent Girls' Externalizing and Health Risk Behaviors: A 6-Year Longitudinal Study.

This 6-year longitudinal study examined girls' peer-nominated social preference and aggression in childhood as predictors of self- and parent-reported externalizing symptoms, substance use (i.e.. cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use), and sexual risk behavior in adolescence. Participants were 148 girls from diverse ethnic backgrounds, who were initially assessed in Grades 4-6 and again in Grades 10-12. Results supported a moderator model, indicating that social preference changed the nature of the association between childhood aggression and adolescent outcomes. When accompanied by peer rejection, aggressive behavior was moderately stable over time and significantly associated with adolescent girls' substance use and sexual risk behavior. However, under conditions of peer acceptance, no significant association between childhood aggression and adolescent outcomes emerged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reciprocal relations between adolescent substance use and delinquency: A longitudinal latent variable analysis.

Reciprocal relations between self-reported substance use and delinquency were examined through the analysis of 4-wave panel data collected from 1,218 high school students. A longitudinal, latent-variable framework was used to investigate interrelationships between changing patterns of generalized involvement in these 2 problem behaviors, while simultaneously accounting for specificity in drug use (e.g., marijuana use) and delinquency (e.g., theft). Analyses revealed that a model of bidirectional effects between polysubstance use and general delinquency was plausible for boys but not for girls. For boys, the effect of delinquency on substance use was small but consistent over time, whereas the effect of substance use on delinquency was larger but restricted to the earlier waves of the study. Implications for the question of whether or not substance use and delinquency have causal connections are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent modeling of parent substance use: The moderating effect of the relationship with the parent.

This study examined a hypothesis derived from social learning theory, that adolescents would be more likely to model the substance use of each parent if they had a relatively good relationship with the parent than if their relationship with that parent was relatively poor. Data from 657 adolescents (51% female; 11 to 15 years of age at the 1st assessment), 357 fathers, and 633 mothers across a 6-year assessment period were used for these analyses. As hypothesized, all adolescents modeled mother's cigarette use and father's marijuana use, older adolescents modeled mother's marijuana use and younger girls and older boys modeled father's alcohol use if they had a relatively good or moderate relationship with that parent but did not model their parent's use if the relationship with that parent was relatively poor. Caution is noted in assuming that relatively good relationships with a parent are always protective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD.

Children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n=142) were prospectively monitored into adolescence (13-18 years old) to evaluate their risk for elevated substance use relative to same-aged adolescents without ADHD (n=100). Probands reported higher levels of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use than did controls. Group differences were apparent for alcohol symptom scores but not for alcohol or marijuana disorder diagnoses. Within probands, severity of childhood inattention symptoms predicted multiple substance use outcomes; childhood oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder (ODD/CD) symptoms predicted illicit drug use and CD symptoms. Persistence of ADHD and adolescent CD were each associated with elevated substance use behaviors relative to controls. Further study of the mediating mechanisms that explain risk for early substance use and abuse in children with ADHD is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships over time between mental health symptoms and transmission risk among persons living with HIV.

Relationships between mental health symptoms (anxiety and depression) or a positive state of mind and behavior associated with HIV transmission (substance use and risky sexual behavior) were explored in a longitudinal study of persons living with HIV (PLH; N = 936) who were participants in a transmission-prevention trial. Bivariate longitudinal regressions were used to estimate the correlations between mental health symptoms and HIV-related transmission acts for 3 time frames: at the baseline interview, over 25 months, and from assessment to assessment. At baseline, mental health symptoms were associated with transmission acts. Elevated levels of mental health symptoms at baseline were associated with decreasing alcohol or marijuana use over 25 months. Over 25 months, an increasingly positive state of mind was associated with decreasing alcohol or marijuana use; an increasingly positive state of mind in the immediate intervention condition and increasing depressive symptoms in the lagged condition were related to increasing risky sexual behavior. Our findings suggest that mental health symptoms precede a decrease in substance use and challenge self-medication theories. Changes in mental health symptoms and sexual behavior occur more in tandem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related changes in reasons for using alcohol and marijuana from ages 18 to 30 in a national sample.

This study used up to seven waves of data from 32 consecutive cohorts of participants in the national longitudinal Monitoring the Future study to model changes in self-reported reasons for using alcohol and marijuana by age (18 to 30), gender, and recent substance use. The majority of stated reasons for use decreased in prevalence across young adulthood (e.g., social/recreational and coping with negative affect reasons); exceptions included age-related increases in using to relax (alcohol and marijuana), to sleep (alcohol), because it tastes good (alcohol), and to get high (marijuana). Women were more likely than men to report drinking for reasons involving distress (i.e., to get away from problems), while men were more likely than women to endorse all other reasons. Greater substance use at age 18 was associated with greater likelihood of all reasons except to experiment and to fit in. A better understanding of developmental changes in reasons for use is important for understanding normative changes in substance use behaviors and for informing intervention efforts involving underlying reasons for use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental trajectories of adolescents' depressive symptoms: Predictors of change.

in a sample of 240 adolescents assessed annually in Grades 6 through 11, the developmental trajectories of their depressive symptoms were examined using latent factor growth modeling. Growth in mother-reported adolest.ent depressive symptoms was quadratic; growth in adolescent-reported symptoms was linear. In the model with gender and maternal depression, girls reported a greater increase in depressive symptoms over time than boys, and adolescents of mothers with histories of mood disorders had higher initial levels of depressive symptoms than offspring of never-depressed mothers. After gender and maternal depression were controlled, initial levels of negative attributions and stressors significantly predicted initial levels of adolescent- and mother-reported depressive symptoms. Attributional styles that were increasingly negative across time were associated with significantly higher initial levels (mother reported) and increasing growth (adolescent reported) of depressive symptoms. Reciprocal models in which development of depressive symptoms predicted the development of attributions and stress also were examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detection of youth at high risk for substance use disorders: A longitudinal study.

This study extends prior research (D. Clark, J. Cornelius, L. Kirisci, & R. Tarter, 2005) by determining whether variation in the developmental trajectories of liability to substance use disorder (SUD) is contributed by neurobehavioral disinhibition, parental substance use involvement, and demographic variables. The sample, participants in a long-term prospective investigation, consisted of 351 boys, evaluated at ages 10-12, 12-14, 16, 19, and 22, whose parents either had SUD or no adult psychiatric disorder. Neurobehavioral disinhibition in childhood, in conjunction with parental lifetime substance use/SUD, place the child at very high risk for SUD by age 22 if psychosocial maladjustment progresses in severity in early adolescence. These results indicate that monitoring social adjustment during the transition from childhood to mid-adolescence is important for identifying youth at very high risk for succumbing to SUD by young adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental trajectories of co-occurring depressive, eating, antisocial, and substance abuse problems in female adolescents.

Growth trajectories of co-occurring symptomatology were examined in a community sample of 493 female adolescents who were followed annually from early to late adolescence. On average, depression, eating disorder, and substance abuse symptoms increased over time, whereas antisocial behavior decreased. Increases in each symptom domain were associated with relative increases in all other domains. Initial depressive and antisocial behavior symptoms predicted future increases in the other; substance abuse and antisocial behavior symptoms also showed prospective reciprocal relations. Initial depression predicted increases in eating disorder and substance abuse symptoms. Initial eating disorder symptoms predicted increases in substance abuse problems. Finally, the results suggest that the developmental covariation between depressive and eating disorder symptoms and between antisocial behavior and substance abuse symptoms was accounted for by distinct but related 2nd-order growth parameters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pubertal maturation and early substance use risks among African American children.

Using 2 waves of longitudinal data collected from approximately 870 African American adolescents, this study examined (a) changes in early risk factors for substance use during transition to early adolescence, including perceived prototypes of substance-using peers, willingness and intention to use substances, number of substance-using peers, and youths' own actual substance use; (b) the relationship between pubertal timing and these substance use risks; and (c) the interaction between pubertal timing and peer substance use in predicting the risks. Results showed that, first, risks for substance use increased, particularly among girls, during the transition to early adolescence. Children's prototypic images of substance users became increasingly favorable during this transitional period; a greater number of them were willing and intended to use substances during the transition to early adolescence; and an increased number of early adolescents and their friends began to use substances. Second, these changes were significantly more likely to occur among early maturing girls. Third, early physical maturation interacted with peer substance use to affect these changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)