The effects of nicotine on spatial and non-spatial expectancies in a covert orienting task

The present study examined how nicotine influences shifts of visuo spatial attention in casual smokers at each of three delays after smoking one cigarette: immediately, 1 h and 24 h. Informative peripheral cues were used to exogenously orient attention to the location where an increase or decrease in the size of a peripheral object was most likely to occur. One size change was more likely to occur than the other and the task was choice (expansion/contraction) reaction time. The performance decrement obtained when the target appeared at an uncued location was smallest in sessions run immediately after smoking (when nicotine levels were highest), suggesting that nicotine may increase the ease with which attention can be disengaged from a cued location. This finding confirms previous research which suggests a specific role for the basal forebrain cholinergic system in visual orienting. In contrast, nicotine was not found to affect non-spatial expectancies based on stimulus-response (expansion/contraction) probability. These findings, together with recent converging evidence, strongly support the proposition that different attentional operations are mediated by different neural subsystems.     

Smokers’ expectancies for abstinence: Preliminary results from focus groups.

Smokers’ expectancies regarding the effects of cigarette use are powerful predictors of smoking motivation and behavior. However, studies have not investigated the consequences that smokers expect when they attempt to quit smoking: abstinence-related expectancies. The primary goal of this qualitative study was to gain initial insight into smokers’ expectancies for abstinence. Eight focus groups were conducted with 30 smokers diverse with respect to age, gender, and ethnoracial background. Content analyses indicated that smokers anticipate a variety of outcomes from abstinence. The most frequently reported expectancies included pharmacologic withdrawal symptoms, behavioral withdrawal symptoms, decreased monetary expense, and immediate improvement of certain aspects of physical functioning and health. Additional expectancies concerned weight gain, improved attractiveness, enhanced social functioning/self-esteem, long-term health outcomes, and loss of relationships. Finally, a number of relatively unheralded expectancies were revealed. These involved nicotine replacement therapy effectiveness, alcohol and other drug use, cue reactivity, cessation-related social support, aversion to smoking, and “political process” implications. This study provides a preliminary step in understanding smokers’ expectancies for abstinence from cigarettes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smoking Consequences Questionnaire—Spanish.

A total of 212 Spanish smokers completed a Spanish version of a smoking questionnaire based on the Smoking Consequences Questionnaire—Adult (A. L. Copeland, T. H. Brandon, & E. P. Quinn, 1995) and a nicotine dependence (ND) measure. Confirmatory factor analysis results supported an a priori defined 8-factor structure. The results also indicated good internal consistency for the instrument and the scales derived from each factor. Positive outcome smoking expectancies scales were significantly and substantially associated with ND scores. Also, after controlling for the influence of ND, the authors found higher smoking expectancies in women than in men in (a) weight control, (b) craving reduction and addictiveness, and (c) negative-affect reduction. The results support the instrument's construct validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The acute effects of nicotine on positive and negative affect in adolescent smokers.

Although adolescent cigarette smoking remains a critical public health concern, little is known about the reinforcing mechanisms governing smoking in this vulnerable population. To assess predictions derived from both positive and negative reinforcement models of drug use, the authors measured the acute effects of nicotine, as administered via tobacco cigarettes, on both positive and negative affect in a group of 15- to 18-year-old smokers. A matched group of nonsmokers served as a comparison group. Findings revealed that whereas adolescents who smoked a cigarette experienced reductions in both positive and negative affect, the observed reductions in negative affect were moderated by nicotine content of the cigarette (high yield vs. denicotinized), level of nicotine dependence, level of baseline craving, and smoking expectancies pertinent to negative affect regulation. Nonsmokers experienced no change in affect over the 10-min assessment period, and no interaction effects were observed for positive affect. Overall, the findings conform to a negative reinforcement model of nicotine effects and strongly suggest that, even among young light smokers, nicotine dependence and resultant withdrawal symptomatology may serve as motivating factors governing smoking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do adolescent smokers experience withdrawal effects when deprived of nicotine?

This is the first controlled prospective study of the effects of nicotine deprivation in adolescent smokers. Heart rate and subjective withdrawal symptoms were measured over and 8-hr period while participants smoked normally. Seven days later, participants were randomized to wear a 15-mg (16-hr) nicotine patch or placebo patch for 8 hr, and they refrained from smoking during the session. Those wearing the placebo experienced a decrease in heart rate across sessions and an increase in subjective measures of nicotine withdrawal. Those wearing the active patch also reported significant increases for some subjective symptoms. Expectancy effects were also observed. The findings indicate that adolescent smokers experience subjective and objective changes when deprived of nicotine. As in previous research with adults, expectancies concerning the effects of nicotine replacement also influenced perceptions of withdrawal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Electroencephalographic responses to photic stimulation in habitual smokers and nonsmokers.

Performed 2 studies in which EEGs of 45 habitual cigarette smokers and of 59 nonsmokers were taken before and after they were required to smoke a cigarette. The EEGs were scored for incidence of EEG "driving" responses to photic stimulation, an index that appears to reflect the balance between central adrenergic and cholinergic nervous systems. Findings suggest that smokers tend to have a central autonomic balance less in favor of adrenergic functioning than do nonsmokers. Cigarette smoking may alleviate a possible central adrenergic insufficiency of smokers. These findings suggest a solution to "Nesbitt's paradox," which has reference to the fact that while nicotine is a central adrenergic stimulant, smokers describe the effect of smoking in sedational terms (i.e., as relaxing or calming). (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rearing condition and plasma cortisol in rhesus monkey infants

Nicotine has been shown to affect attentional and mnemonic processes. However, whether these effects are due to changes in perceptual and/or motor aspects of the tasks is not at all clear. This study tested the hypothesis that nicotine from cigarette smoking has differential effects on perceptual and motor processes, as reflected by event-related potentials (ERPs) and reaction times (RTs), respectively, and that perceptual effects may be specific to changes in working memory. ERPs. RTs and performance accuracy were recorded from smokers and nonsmokers during a serial-probe recognition memory task in which lists of words or "memory sets" were followed by a probe word that was either in-set or out-of-set. Smokers were tested in a "smoking" and a 12-h "deprived" condition. Smoking-smokers and deprived-smokers exhibited fast RTs to in-set and out-of-set probes relative to a group of nonsmokers. They exhibited even faster RTs when the inset probe word matched the first or last item in the memory set. Thus, smokers as a group showed enhanced primacy and recency effects suggesting that smoking specifically facilitates processes related to the motor output aspects of working memory. Different effects characterized the electrophysiology. Larger P300s were recorded to in-set compared to out-of-set probes by both subject groups. Smoking smokers exhibited enhanced P300s to both types of probes. When smokers abstained for 12 h (deprived smokers), the differences in P300 amplitude were reduced but not eliminated. Smoking smokers exhibited faster P300 latencies to in-set probes, while deprived smokers showed delayed latencies relative to nonsmokers. Primacy and recency P300 effects characterized nonsmokers and deprived smokers. However, this relationship was reversed in the Smoking condition. These results support the hypotheses that nicotine has distinct effects on memory-related perceptual and motor aspects of working memory. The increase in efficiency of the memory search with nicotine is consistent with the functional role of the cholinergic system in maintaining a state "appropriate for efficient information processing."     

Impact of expenditures for veterinary services and medical supplies on dairy farm productivity and profitability

OBJECTIVES: This study was undertaken to explore smoking patterns and attitudes that influence smoking cessation and relapse among African Americans. METHODS: Baseline data from eight Community Intervention Trial for Smoking Cessation (COMMIT) sites were analyzed. RESULTS: Compared with Whites, African Americans who smoke less than 25 cigarettes per day were 1.6 times more likely to smoke within 10 minutes of awakening (a behavioral indicator of nicotine dependence), adjusting for education, age, and gender (OR = 1.2 for heavier smokers). African Americans reported a stronger desire to quit smoking and reported serious quit attempts in the past year. African Americans favored tobacco restrictions (they were 1.8 times more likely than Whites to view smoking as a serious community problem, 1.7 times more likely to favor restrictions on cigarette vending machines, and 2.1 times more likely to prohibit smoking in their car). African Americans were lighter/moderate, menthol smokers. CONCLUSIONS: African Americans find smoking socially unacceptable and are strongly motivated to quit, but their "wake-up" smoking may indicate high nicotine dependence, making abstinence difficult even for lighter smokers.     

Daily Processes in Stress and Smoking: Effects of Negative Events, Nicotine Dependence, and Gender.

The author used a multilevel daily process design to examine relations among daily negative events, perceived stress, smoking, and smoking urges. The moderating effects of gender and nicotine dependence were also explored. Fifty-one adult community-residing smokers recorded negative events, perceived stress, cigarette smoking, and urges to smoke 4 times daily for 14 days. Analyses of within-person relations showed that participants smoked more cigarettes and experienced more urges to smoke on occasions with higher numbers of negative events and higher levels of perceived stress. These relations were stronger for men than for women. Nicotine dependence did not interact with events or stress in predicting smoking or urges. These findings build on laboratory studies and cross-sectional surveys by showing that in naturalistic settings, occasions with negative events and perceived stress are associated with smoking and urges to smoke. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Greater sensitivity to subjective effects of nicotine in nonsmokers high in sensation seeking.

The personality characteristic of sensation seeking is associated with risk of smoking, perhaps because of greater initial sensitivity to nicotine. Young healthy nonsmokers (N?=?37) were administered 0, 10, and 20 μg/kg nicotine by nasal spray in 3 separate sessions, and subjective responses were assessed. Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS) scores were then correlated with these responses. A comparison group of smokers (N?=?55) was included to determine whether sensation seeking was associated specifically with initial sensitivity to nicotine or with general sensitivity regardless of past nicotine exposure. SSS subscales, particularly Experience Seeking and Disinhibition, were correlated with subjective responses to nicotine in nonsmokers but generally not in smokers. These findings indicate that sensation seeking is associated with greater initial sensitivity to nicotine's subjective effects and may provide directions for further study of individual-differences characteristics that predispose people to the risk of becoming smokers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characterizing nicotine withdrawal in pregnant cigarette smokers.

Maternal smoking is a leading preventable cause of poor pregnancy outcomes and infant morbidity and mortality. Whereas pregnancy has been thought of as a "window of opportunity" when women are more motivated to change health behaviors such as smoking, only 20% of pregnant women quit smoking upon learning they are pregnant and remain abstinent at the end of the pregnancy. Greater understanding of possible obstacles to smoking during pregnancy, such as nicotine withdrawal, is needed. The symptoms of nicotine withdrawal have been well characterized in nonpregnant smokers, but there has been only 1 report conducted during pregnancy, and that was a retrospective study. The aim of the present study was to characterize nicotine withdrawal and craving in pregnant cigarette smokers. These data were collected as part of prospective clinical trials assessing the efficacy of voucher-based incentives to promote abstinence from cigarette smoking during pregnancy and postpartum. The authors examined results from the Minnesota Nicotine Withdrawal Scale (J. R. Hughes & D. K. Hatsukami, 1998) in 27 abstainers (reported no or very low levels of smoking, which was confirmed biochemically) and 21 smokers (smoked at >80% of their baseline smoking level) during the first 5 days of a cessation attempt. Abstainers reported more impatience, anger, and difficulty concentrating than did smokers. The results also suggest that pregnant smokers generally may have elevated baseline levels of withdrawal, which need to be considered in the design and analysis of future studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A multimodal approach to assessing the impact of nicotine dependence, nicotine abstinence, and craving on negative affect in smokers.

We used multimodal measurement to evaluate whether (a) nicotine dependence is associated with baseline and postquit negative affect and craving, (b) smoking relapse is associated with greater negative affect and craving than abstinence, and (c) craving is associated with negative affect. Treatment-seeking smokers were randomly assigned to either a brief behaviorally based smoking-cessation treatment condition or to a delayed treatment control condition. Participants in the treatment condition attended four assessment sessions, 4–5 days prequit (baseline), 1–2 days postquit, 3–5 days postquit, and 10–14 days postquit, while controls attended four sessions spaced over the same intervals. Retrospective questionnaires were collected at the beginning of each session, and corrugator EMG and in-session ratings were collected during viewing of affective and cigarette-related slides. The multimodal measures indicated that more dependent smokers experienced greater negative affect and craving at baseline and postquit, regardless of abstinence status. The self-report measures indicated that both relapsed and abstinent smokers reported greater negative affect and craving than control smokers. Craving was associated with negative affect across measurement modalities. These results highlight the benefits of using multimodal measures to study the impact of nicotine dependence and withdrawal on negative affect and craving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smoking and nicotine dependence. Results from a sample of 14- to 24-year-olds in Germany

Ths paper describes the distribution of dependence criteria and diagnoses in a sample of 14- to 24-year-olds from Munich, Germany (n = 3,021; 71% response rate), evaluates differences between nondependent and dependent smokers and examines associations of smoking with other substances, affective and anxiety disorders. Assessment was made using the M-CIDI. The lifetime prevalence of DSM-IV nicotine dependence in the total sample is 19%, rising to 52% among regular smokers. No gender differences were seen in the progression from regular smoking to nicotine dependence, although men were more likely than women to initiate regular use. Analysis of daily cigarette use identified a significant dose-response relationship with the number of endorsed DSM-IV dependence criteria with unsuccessful cut-backs being the most prevalent criterion. As compared to nondependent smokers, dependent smokers were more likely to associate negative health effects with smoking and to have a desire to change and attempt a change in their pattern of use. Regular use of nicotine was found to be significantly associated with other substance and nonsubstance disorders, although dependent regular use was more strongly associated with these disorders than nondependent regular use. These results indicate that daily smoking is a behavior which is resistant to change despite an expressed desire and repeated cut-back attempts. Although initiation of regular smoking among nonsmokers does not occur frequently after the early twenties, the risk for dependent smoking among regular users persists into adulthood and is associated with a range of mental disorders.     

Characteristics of highly physically active smokers in a population of young adult military recruits

A substantial number of cigarette smokers are thought to engage in regular exercise. It is unclear why individuals who engage in a health-promoting activity such as exercising would simultaneously engage in a health-damaging behavior like smoking. Two possibilities are that (1) exercise serves as a "harm reduction" strategy to lessen the negative effects of smoking, or (2) that among weight conscious individuals, exercise and smoking are both used as weight control strategies. To examine these issues, smoking status, physical activity level, weight concerns, and several additional health behaviors and attitudes were assessed by questionnaire in a population of United States Air Force recruits (n=32,144). Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to compare characteristics of highly physically active smokers with both highly physically active never-smokers, and less active smokers. A substantial proportion of smokers reported being highly physically active (15.8%), although this proportion was significantly higher for never-smokers (22.7%). Active smokers were similar to active never-smokers across several health behaviors and attitudes, including diet, seatbelt use, and attitudes toward illegal drugs and condom use. Compared to less active smokers, active smokers consumed more fruits and vegetables, worried less about their weight, were less nicotine dependent, and had greater previous success at quitting smoking. These findings indicate that a substantial proportion of highly physically active young adults are regular cigarette smokers. Based on findings regarding general health behaviors and smoking history, this group may be particularly amenable to smoking cessation efforts.     

Effects of nicotine deprivation on craving response covariation in smokers.

Most models of craving propose that when cravings are strong, diverse responses--thought to index an underlying craving state--covary. Previous studies provided weak support for this hypothesis. The authors tested whether nicotine deprivation affects degree of covariation across multiple measures related to craving. Heavy and light smokers (N=127) were exposed to smoking cues while either nicotine deprived or nondeprived. Measures included urge ratings, affective valence, a behavioral choice task assessing perceived reinforcement value of smoking, and smoking-related judgment tasks. Results indicated higher correlations in the nicotine-deprived than in nondeprived group. The measures principally responsible for this effect loaded onto a single common Craving factor for nicotine-deprived but not nondeprived smokers. These findings suggest that, under certain conditions, measures of craving-related processes covary. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship among alcohol use, depression, smoking behavior, and motivation to quit smoking with hospitalized smokers.

Relationships among depression, alcohol use, and motivation to quit smoking were examined in a sample of 350 hospitalized smokers. Multivariate multiple regression and logistic regression analyses indicated that participants with depressed mood were more likely to have a history of problematic drinking. Participants with depressed mood and a history of problematic drinking were more likely to be nicotine dependent and anticipated greater difficulty refraining from smoking while hospitalized. Alcohol use in heavier amounts was associated with a decreased concern with negative aspects of smoking, whereas history of depression was associated with increased concern in that area. Finally, current drinking was associated with increased confidence in quitting in 1 month whereas depressed mood was associated with decreased confidence in quitting. Overall, depression and alcohol use had stronger associations with smoking-related variables than with smoking cessation motivation variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Olfactory thresholds for nicotine and menthol in smokers (abstinent and nonabstinent) and nonsmokers

Nonsmokers and smokers were compared for olfactory sensitivity to two odors associated with cigarettes: nicotine and menthol. Smokers were tested twice--while nonabstinent, and after 16-20 h of smoking abstinence. Smokers showed a higher olfactory threshold for nicotine than did nonsmokers, but the same threshold for menthol. Furthermore, when the smokers were abstinent, they showed a lower olfactory threshold for nicotine than when they were nonabstinent, but again, the same threshold for menthol. These results suggest a nicotine specific olfactory deficit in smokers that is reduced during abstinence.     

Depression and smoking cessation: Characteristics of depressed smokers and effects of nicotine replacement.

Previous research has linked depression to difficulties in smoking cessation. The authors followed 269 smokers who attempted to quit smoking for 3 months. Participants were given nicotine gum (2 or 4 mg) or placebo gum and brief counseling. The study found that 34% of the smokers met the criterion for current depression using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. Depressed smokers relapsed significantly earlier than the nondepressed. Nicotine gum was significantly more effective than placebo gum among all smokers. The benefits of nicotine gum were particularly apparent among the depressed. Only 12.5% of depressed smokers quit successfully with placebo gum for 3 months, whereas 29.5% quit with nicotine gum. Depressed smokers reported more stress, less coping resources, more physical and psychological symptoms, and more frequent smoking in the presence of negative affect than did the nondepressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between nicotine and alcohol expectancies and substance dependence.

The relation between nicotine and alcohol expectancies and lifetime nicotine and alcohol dependence was examined. Higher expectancies for nicotine and alcohol were found for nicotine and alcohol-dependent groups, respectively, compared with asymptomatic and nonusing groups. These data extend work showing a positive relation between level of smoking and expectancy by showing that, with level of use controlled statistically, enhanced expectancies are characteristic of persons meeting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) criteria for nicotine dependence. A similar relation was found between alcohol expectancies and alcohol dependence. Implications for understanding the role of cognitive factors in drug dependence are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contrasting renal effects of nicotine in smokers and non-smokers

BACKGROUND: Cigarette smoking is associated with acute increase in arterial pressure due to systemic vasoconstriction and decreased skin and coronary blood flow. Virtually all cardiovascular effects of cigarette smoking are due to nicotine. However, whether nicotine also affects the renal circulation and function in humans is at present unknown. METHODS: In the current study the acute effects of a 4-mg nicotine gum on arterial pressure, heart rate as well as renal haemodynamics and function were assessed in non-smokers and chronic smokers. RESULTS: In non-smokers, mean arterial pressure (+8 +/- 1 mmHg, P<0.001) and heart rate (+13 +/- 3 beats/min, P<0.001) increased whereas effective renal plasma flow (ERPF) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) decreased by 15 +/- 4% and 14 +/- 4% respectively; in addition, urinary cyclic GMP decreased by 51 +/- 12% in response to nicotine administration. In smokers, mean arterial pressure and heart rate increased similarly; however, in contrast with non-smokers, ERPF and GFR remained unchanged whereas urinary cyclic GMP rose by 87 +/- 43%. Changes in ERPF induced by nicotine were positively correlated with changes in urinary cyclic GMP. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that nicotine administration is associated with renal vasoconstriction in healthy non-smokers, possibly through alteration of a cyclic-GMP-dependent vasoactive mechanism. Tolerance to the renal effect of nicotine was observed in chronic smokers, despite the maintenance of the systemic response to nicotine.