Time between events as a retrieval cue: Recall and the temporal similarity between the storage and retrieval intervals.

Examined the hypothesis that the time elapsing between events may be a potent cue that accompanies the storage and retrieval of memories. If so, it follows that as the retention interval increases, recall may either increase or decrease, depending on whether the retrieval interval is becoming more similar or less similar to the storage interval. Six experiments employing a runway were conducted, using a total of 102 naive male Holtzman rats as Ss. The target memory to be recalled in acquisition was measured in a subsequent extinction phase in all 6 experiments reported; faster extinction indicated poorer recall in acquisition. Consistent with the present hypothesis, it was found that regardless of whether the retention interval in extinction was long (10–20 min) or short (about 30 sec), resistance to extinction was greater when in acquisition the storage and retrieval intervals were alike (both 30 sec or 10–20 min) rather than different. Results rule out 4 alternative explanations to the present hypothesis: a temporal discrimination view, time tagging the memory of nonreward, generalization decrement occasioned by a change in retention interval from acquisition to extinction, and what was called the last-trial hypothesis. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Chunking of repeated events in memory.

The chunking explanation of the repetition effect proposed by D. R. Young and F. S. Bellezza (see record 1983-23761-001) suggests that optimal recall occurs when the second presentation of an item results in the retrieval and elaboration of the first-presentation code. If a new code is created, recall is less than optimal. In three experiments involving paired-associates learning, the chunking hypothesis correctly indicated that with a large spacing of item repetitions, constant-encoding conditions resulted in superior recall performance. But with a short spacing, variable encoding led to better recall. In addition, evidence for superadditivity was found in Experiment 3 in those experimental conditions in which code elaboration was most likely to take place. It is suggested that multiple-copy explanations of the repetition effect are untenable unless the repetition of an item is not recognized. If a repetition is recognized, the information from both presentations is organized into one code in memory, and recall performance is optimal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Synergistic ecphory in recall and recognition.

Describes a general model of retrieval of episodic memory information, within which basic phenomena of recall and recognition can be integrated and related to commonly accepted theoretical ideas. The model also provides a statement of the relation between recall and recognition as 2 forms of retrieval: They are similar with respect to the process of ecphory, combining trace information and retrieval information into ecphoric information; they are different with respect to conversion of ecphoric information into recollective experience and memory performance. (French abstract) (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigating the structure and age invariance of episodic memory across the adult lifespan.

The structure of episodic memory was investigated by assessing different modalities of material (verbal, figural, and spatial) and different types of tests (recall, cued recall, and recognition). A 3-factor model that distinguished among modalities of material was found to be the best representation of memory and the verbal, figural, and spatial memory factors exhibiting construct validity. This 3-factor modality of material model also demonstrated configural, metric, and structural age invariance across a sample of adults (N = 327) between the ages of 18 and 94. There was evidence that latent constructs corresponding to recall, cued recall, and recognition could be distinguished from one another within the verbal domain but not within the figural and spatial domains. A mediation model examining the retrieval constructs was examined within the verbal domain, and there were unique age-related influences on cued recall and recall performance. This result is consistent with findings that increased age is associated with increased difficulty in retrieving information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dream recall and dream recall failure: An arousal-retrieval model.

Proposes an arousal/retrieval model to account for difficulties in sleep learning and dream recall. The model is based on 2-stage memory theory, which assumes that information processing in a short-term memory store facilitates subsequent retrieval from long-term memory storage. It is proposed that the effectiveness of processing of target material is impaired during sleep. Thus, dreams and information contained in stimulus presentations to a sleeping person very likely can only be retrieved if an awakening occurs during the life of the short-term memory trace. It is further proposed that experiences occurring during or shortly after awakening compete with the target material for space in the limited-capacity processing system, with the most salient of the set favored in the competition. Interference and repression effects are assumed as additional factors in retrieval from long-term storage. (11/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The spacing effect depends on an encoding deficit, retrieval, and time in working memory: evidence from once-presented words

The spacing effect in list learning occurs because identical massed items suffer encoding deficits and because spaced items benefit from retrieval and increased time in working memory. Requiring the retrieval of identical items produced a spacing effect for recall and recognition, both for intentional and incidental learning. Not requiring retrieval produced spacing only for intentional learning because intentional learning encourages retrieval. Once-presented words provided baselines for these effects. Next, massed and spaced word pairs were judged for matches on their first three letters, forcing retrieval. The words were not identical, so there was no encoding deficit. Retrieval could and did cause spacing only for the first word of each pair; time in working memory, only for the second.     

Developmental invariance in distinctiveness effects in memory.

Improvements in 5- and 7-year-olds' acquisition and retention of related concept pairings were examined when additional similarities and differences between pair members were provided. Using a standard paired-associate learning paradigm, children learned 18 related picture pairs; some of the children either were given or produced additional similarities or differences between pair members at the time of learning. Three weeks after learning was complete, children attempted to recall the pairs. Using a model to determine the storage and retrieval loci of these effects, the results showed that (a) all children benefited from self-generated elaborations, regardless of whether these were similarities or differences, and these benefits were storage related, and (b) difference elaborations improved children's retention regardless of whether they were self- or experimenter-generated, and these effects were primarily retrieval based. These results are consistent with theories that (a) view retrieval as the locus of distinctiveness effects and (b) view storage as the locus of self-generated memory improvements. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal memory in drug-naive, newly diagnosed Parkinson's disease. The retrieval deficit hypothesis revisited.

Objective: The retrieval deficit hypothesis on memory impairment in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) implies a selective impairment in recall of learned material with normal encoding, retention, and recognition. This hypothesis has been challenged by new data. We have therefore investigated verbal memory and learning in a large sample of newly diagnosed, drug na?ve, non-demented patients with PD. Method: From a sample of patients with PD from the Norwegian ParkWest study, 133 PD patients and 133 controls matched on sex, age, and education were included. The California Verbal Learning Test-2 (CVLT-2) was used to assess verbal memory. Results: Patients performed significantly worse than controls on free and cued recall as well as on recognition memory. Patients used the semantic clustering learning strategy significantly less extensively than the controls and the learning slope of the PD patients was significantly less steep. There was no difference in retention when controlling for encoding. Patients did not perform better on the recognition measure or on cued recall (d-prime), as compared to free recall. Executive functions explained a substantial part of the memory deficits. Conclusions: This study suggests that memory impairment in drug na?ve early PD to a large degree is a deficit of learning/ encoding and not of retention or retrieval. An implication is that the retrieval deficit hypothesis should be moderated in its general form. Executive deficits and less extensive use of the efficient semantic clustering learning strategy had a strong impact on learning and memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spread of encoding and the development of organization in memory.

Examined the idea of spread of encoding as an explanatory principle in the development of free recall of words, in which the encoding of category-level word features increases the probability that these same features will be encoded for other same-category exemplars. The data of 2 experiments with 336 2nd graders and 2 experiments with 264 6th graders suggest that encoding of category-level features does not spread in elementary Ss' free recall. Using a mathematical model to estimate storage and retrieval difficulty, it was found that patterns of between-condition differences in storage and in retrieval did not suggest spread of encoding. In 2 experiments with 156 11th graders, data suggest that encoding of category-level features spreads in adolescent free recall. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory encoding and retrieval in frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease.

Memory encoding and retrieval strategies were assessed in patients with behavior-executive variant frontotemporal dementia (FTD), language variant FTD, and Alzheimer's disease (AD) using verbal and visuospatial supraspan learning tests. FTD patients obtained higher free recall, cued recall, and recognition scores than AD patients. Comparison of free recall scores with cued recall and recognition scores was similar in the 3 dementia groups. Groups did not differ in semantic clustering strategies during learning, but serial-order recall was more common in FTD patients. These data do not support the idea that FTD patients' poor memory is due to a selective retrieval disorder, though FTD patients may fail to implement sophisticated organizational strategies during learning. FTD patients' retained capacity for encoding new information into long-term declarative memory is likely due to relatively spared medial temporal lobe involvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dynamics of memory retrieval in older adulthood.

One of the most robust findings in cognitive aging is that of a significant decline in self-initiated recall from episodic memory. In laboratory studies this deficit can be seen in significant age differences in word-list free recall. In this article, the authors focus on free recall of categorized word lists where one observes "response bursting" in the form of a rapid output of within-category items with longer delays between categories. Age differences appear primarily in between category latencies, results that are consistent with a relative sparing of semantic memory combined with an age-deficit in episodic retrieval. When adjusted for differences in overall mnemonic ability, it is demonstrated that the relationship between organization and learning remains invariant with normal aging. The authors argue that the locus of the age deficit in free recall lies at the level of temporal coding of items and the use of temporal associations to guide recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spacing effects in memory: Evidence for a two-process account.

Memory for repeated items on a list improves as a function of the spacing between repetitions. It is shown that spacing effects are eliminated in relative frequency discrimination, absolute frequency estimation, and recognition when items are learned incidentally. Spacing effects in free recall are unaffected by intentionality of learning. The results suggest that spacing effects in tasks in which experimenter-supplied retrieval cues are available are due to a rehearsal strategy that allots fewer rehearsals to items repeated in massed fashion. Spacing effects in free recall are due to a separate process resulting from study-phase retrieval of repeated items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detrimental Influence of Contextual Change on Spacing Effects in Free Recall.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the mechanism underlying the spacing effect in free-recall tasks. Participants were required to study a list containing once-presented words as well as massed and spaced repetitions. In both experiments, presentation background at repetition was manipulated. The results of Experiment 1 demonstrated that free recall was higher for massed items repeated in a different context than for massed items repeated in the same context, whereas free recall for spaced items was higher when repeated in the same context. Furthermore, a spacing effect was shown for words repeated in the same context, whereas an attenuated spacing effect was revealed for words repeated in a different context. These findings were replicated in Experiment 2 under a different presentation background manipulation. Both experiments seem to be most consistent with a model that combines the contextual variability and the study-phase retrieval mechanism to account for the spacing effect in free-recall tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A distributed memory model for serial-order information.

Presents a theory for the storage and retrieval of item and serial-order information in which items or events are represented as random vectors. Convolution is used as the storage operation, and correlation is used as the retrieval operation. A distributed memory system is assumed; all information is stored in a common memory vector. In principle, the theory can apply to item recognition, order recognition, probe and ordered recall, judgments of recency and frequency, lexical decision, and storage of higher-order units such as chunks or propositions. It applies to both accuracy and latency. Performance is predicted from the moments (expectation and variance) of the similarity distributions, and these can be derived from the theory. A canonical version of discrete memory models is outlined as a basis for comparison; it does not fit some serial-order recognition data as well as the distributed memory model does. (78 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subjective and categorical organization of recall during posthypnotic amnesia.

Conducted 2 experiments to determine the fate of organization of recall during posthypnotic amnesia. In both studies, amnesia suggestions were administered to undergraduate Ss of low, medium, and high hypnotic susceptibility who had learned a word list by the method of free recall while they were hypnotized. In Exp I (n?=?44), words were unrelated to each other, and subjective organization was measured by raw and adjusted pair frequency. In Exp II (n?=–&59), words were drawn from various taxonomic categories, and category clustering was measured by repetition ratio, modified repetition ratio, and adjusted ratio of clustering. Results indicate that, compared to baseline levels, subjective organization and category clustering did not decrease reliably during the time the amnesia suggestion was in effect. Moreover, these aspects of strategic organization were not significantly correlated with the number of items recalled during amnesia. Both findings contrast with previous results concerning temporal organization of a word list memorized by the method of serial learning. Findings suggest that the disruption of retrieval processes in posthypnotic amnesia may be limited to certain organizational schemes. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A temporal distinctiveness theory of recency and modality effects.

Conducted 4 experiments with 40 undergraduates and 60 Ss drawn from a university community to confirm the qualitative and quantitative predictions of a temporal distinctiveness theory of contextually cued retrieval from memory as applied to recency and modality (auditory vs visual) effects on the recall of a list of word pairs. Results of Exp I demonstrated that increasing the length of the temporal isolation of the last word pair aurally presented increased recall of the item; increase in recall of the last item was smaller or absent for the visual presentation of the pairs. Exp II indicated that as the number of word pairs isolated at the end of the list increased, the size of the modality effect decreased. Temporal distinctiveness between the 1st and 2nd pairs in Exp III revealed auditory superiority in recall of the 1st pair, an effect that was eliminated in Exp IV when isolated interval occurred between the 3rd and 4th presentation of a 6-item word pair list. A mathematical model of the quantitative predictions of the theory is appended. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mood dependent memory for events of the personal past.

Previous research on mood dependent memory (MDM) suggests that the more one must rely on internal resources, rather than on external aids, to generate both the target events and the cues required for their retrieval, the more likely is one's memory for these events to be mood dependent. To instantiate this "do-it-yourself" principle, 3 experiments were conducted in which Ss experiencing either a pleasant or an unpleasant mood generated autobiographical events in response to neutral nouns. Subsequently, Ss were tested for event free recall while in the same or the alternative mood state. All 3 studies showed MDM, such that the likelihood of recalling an event generated 2 or 3 days ago was higher when generation and recall moods matched than when they mismatched. Prospects for future research aimed at elucidating and extending these results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does expanded retrieval produce benefits over equal-interval spacing? Explorations of spacing effects in healthy aging and early stage Alzheimer's disease.

Three experiments explored different schedules of retrieval practice in young adults, older adults, and individuals with dementia of the Alzheimer type. In each experiment, an initial acquisition phase was presented in which participants studied or attempted to retrieve response words to cues, followed by a later cued-recall test. Experiment 1 produced a benefit of expanded retrieval over equal-interval retrieval during acquisition, but this benefit was lost in final cued recall. In Experiments 2 and 3, participants received corrective feedback during acquisition and modified spacing schedules. There was again no evidence of a difference between expanded and equal-interval conditions in final cued recall. Discussion focuses on the potential benefits and costs of expanded retrieval on a theoretical and applied level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spaced retrieval: Absolute spacing enhances learning regardless of relative spacing.

Repeated retrieval enhances long-term retention, and spaced repetition also enhances retention. A question with practical and theoretical significance is whether there are particular schedules of spaced retrieval (e.g., gradually expanding the interval between tests) that produce the best learning. In the present experiment, subjects studied and were tested on items until they could recall each one. They then practiced recalling the items on 3 repeated tests that were distributed according to one of several spacing schedules. Increasing the absolute (total) spacing of repeated tests produced large effects on long-term retention: Repeated retrieval with long intervals between each test produced a 200% improvement in long-term retention relative to repeated retrieval with no spacing between tests. However, there was no evidence that a particular relative spacing schedule (expanding, equal, or contracting) was inherently superior to another. Although expanding schedules afforded a pattern of increasing retrieval difficulty across repeated tests, this did not translate into gains in long-term retention. Repeated spaced retrieval had powerful effects on retention, but the relative schedule of repeated tests had no discernible impact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for positive versus negative life events: Theories for the differences between happy and unhappy persons.

Three studies examined the following hypotheses for the relation of subjective well-being (SWB) with memory for positive versus negative life events: (1) differences in retrieval mood, (2) the incidence of positive and negative events, (3) the interpretation of events, and (4) frequency of rehearsal. In Studies 1 (n?=?420) and 2 (n?=?94), the partial correlation of retrieval mood with recall, controlling for SWB, was trivial, suggesting that mood had little or no effect on recall. Endorsement frequencies of positive minus negative concrete events and interpretive events on checklists in Studies 2 and 3 each correlated with SWB (ps?