Laser hardening of aluminum bronzes

The susceptibility of two-phase aluminum bronzes to harden by quenching is well known. This work deals with the features of hardening from liquid or solid phases of several bronzes with 9-11% Al under the action of CO₂ continuous wave laser beam with a power of 1300 W coupled with a table in x-y-z coordinates digitally controlled. In order to determine the hardening conditions, the influence of the processing parameters on the geometry of the hardened layer and surface hardness was analyzed. By the microstructural analysis of the hardened layer, the hardening degree measured by the microhardness meter and structural changes were correlated. The microhardness profile on the depth of the heat-affected zone was traced. The range of the analyzed bronzes points out the influence of the initial condition and of the Ni, Fe, and Mn alloy elements contents on the microstructure, size, and hardness of the hardened layer. The effect of subsequent tempering was investigated.     

Laser Surface Hardening of 9CrSi Steel

The effects of laser hardening parameters such as beam power,beam diameter and scanning rate on microstructure and mardness of 9CrSi steel were investigated.The microstructure of the surface layer of 9CiSi steel was changed from pearlite to martensite,retained austenite and carbide by laser hardening .The depth of the hardened layer increased with increasing laser energy density and the surface hardeness increased by 3-5times as high as the untreated steel.The laser hardened surface had good wear resistance due to martensite and carbide in the surface layer.The wear mode at low speed was abrasive,while the wear mode at high speed was adhesive.     

A semi-empirical method for predicting hardened case depths in laser heat treating

Some predictions on the hardness and hardening depths on laser heat treatment of steels can be obtained when specific characteristics of both laser processes (heating and cooling rates) and laser heat treated steels (microhardness profiles) are taken into account. Some controlled surface temperature laser heat treatments have been carried out with a medium power c.w. CO₂ laser on a medium carbon steel (AISI/SAE1045), allowing these predictions to be tested. In particular, knowing the surface temperature has enabled an analytical algorithm to be used to describe thermal processes and a simple exponential expression to be employed to carefully predict the hardened case depth.     

Surface Hardening of Carbon Steel Using High Powered YAG Laser

A high powered YAG laser with kaleidoscope for surface modification was applied to the surface hardening of carbon steels containing 0. 18-0.54 wt% C without the absorbents, and the relationships between laser processing and surface hardening were investigated by hardness and microstructure. The structure of the hardened zone underwent complete martensitic transformation in all of the carbon steels tested, and its hardness increased with greater carbon content. Under identical irradiated conditions, the hardened zone expanded with increasing carbon content. A hardened zone extending from the surface to a depth of 1.0 mm was obtained at a laser power of 1.0 kW and a scanning speed of 1 mm/sec. It was found that in the surface hardening of carbon steels, a high powered YAG laser can be used to control the hardened zone by selecting the appropriate irradiation conditions, however, the hardened zone was affected by the assistant gas and the flow rate.     

Study on Laser Transformation Hardening of HT250 by High Speed Axis Flow CO2 Laser

In this article, laser transformation hardening of HT250 material by high speed axis flow CO2 laser was investigated for first time in China. Appropriate laser hardening parameters, such as laser energy power P(W), laser scanning rate V(m/min), were optimized through a number of experiments. The effect of the mentioned parameters on the hardened zone, including its case depth, microhardness distributions etc., were analyzed. Through the factual experiments, it is proved that axial flow CO2 laser, which commonly outputs low mode laser beam, can also treat materials as long as the treating parameters used are rational. During the experiments, the surface qualities of some specimens treated by some parameters were found to be enhanced, which does not coincide with the former results. Furthermore in the article, the abnormal phenomenon observed in the experiments is discussed. According to the experimental results, the relationship between laser power density q and scanning rate V is shown in a curve and the corresponding formulation, which have been proved to be valuable for choosing the parameters of laser transformation hardening by axial flow CO2 lasers, was also given.     

45钢磨削硬化的试验研究

在平面磨床上,采用干磨削方式对45钢进行了磨削硬化处理,研究了磨削硬化层的组织与性能.结果表明,在磨削温度场和应变场的综合作用下,完全硬化区马氏体相呈现"细-粗-细"的变化规律,且相对粗大马氏体相出现在次表层;而过渡区组织的形成主要在于磨削热循环温度场的作用.磨削深度或原始组织对显微硬度无显著影响,硬度值均在700～750HV之间;但磨削硬化层深度随着磨削深度的增加或原始组织均匀性的提高,从0.9mm增大到1.4mm.     

Fracture of Laser-Hardened Cylindrical Rods Caused by Torsion and Tension

We study the influence of the direction of motion of a laser beam over the surface of a cylindrical rod in the process of hardening on its strength and character of fracture caused by torsion. The process of hardening of specimens made of 45 steel performed in the tangential direction along a spiral and in the longitudinal direction along the generatrix with different degrees of overlapping of laser tracks results in the formation of an anisotropic structure, which strongly affects the investigated characteristics. The best results are obtained in the case where the direction of deformation of the rods coincides with the direction of screwing of a nut on a right-hand screw and the material of hardened tracks works in compression. In the case of torsion in the opposite direction, the material of hardened tracks works in tension and the strength of the specimens slightly increases. At the same time, their plasticity abruptly decreases.     

激光熔覆技术及其在核电阀门中的研究进展

比较了激光熔覆技术和目前常见的核电阀门密封面强化工艺,指出激光熔覆技术是最具应用前景的工艺方法.分析了激光熔覆技术在核电阀门密封面强化中的研究及应用状况,指出了激光熔覆层质量现存的主要问题,并提出了相应的解决方法.     

45 钢表面激光相变硬化改性组织及耐蚀性能

目的为了改善45钢表面状态,提高其表面性能,采用CO2激光器对其表面进行激光相变硬化处理。方法利用带有能谱的扫描电子显微镜(SEM/EDS)、盐雾试验机等,对激光相变硬化层组织及耐蚀性能进行了观察和分析。结果激光相变硬化层由熔化区、相变硬化区和热影响区三部分组成,其组织依次为:混合马氏体+未溶碳化物、针状马氏体、残余奥氏体。随扫描速度增加,耐蚀性先变好而后变差。结论激光相变硬化处理可改善45钢的表面性能,显著提高其耐蚀性能。     

Laser surface hardening of AISI 01 tool steel and its microstructure

Abstract

The effects of laser surface hardening on AISI 01 tool steel samples were studied by changing the laser operating parameter combinations and the initial steel microstructure. Both melted and solid state transformed regions were produced, and then studied using optical microscopy, analytical electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and measurements of micro hardness to investigate the hardening mechanisms and the development of compressive residual stresses. The results indicate that hardened case depths up to 0·6 mm can be obtained using a laser beam operated at a power of 500 W and a scan rate of 2·1 mm s^?1, but that different amounts of retained austenite and undissolved carbides are observed for different beam powers. Quenched and tempered AISI 01 steel samples, with initial hardness values in the range 30–40 HRC, are better suited for laser surface hardening compared with the samples with initial hardness of 48–50 HRC, because the formation of an over tempered region adjacent to the hardened zone can be avoided.

MST/901     

Effects of nanoparticle addition on hardening and tempering steel

Abstract

The effects of nanoparticle addition on the hardening and tempering 20MnCr steel have been investigated. Addition of oxide nanoparticles to the melt, through a new technology that ensures safe handling, was found to give as hardened steel hardness and tensile properties close to those of the conventional steel in the hardened and tempered condition. This has the potential to eliminate the tempering step in component production, with benefits for process efficiency. The effects on microstructure, hardness and tensile properties depend on the type and concentration of the nanoparticles added. The reduced tensile strength and hardness, and increased ductility, of the steels with nanoparticle additions are attributed to the presence of retained ferrite in these microstructures, in both the hardened and tempered condition. It is proposed that the application of this approach at an industrial scale has the potential to reduce energy consumption, cost and time in component production through the elimination of intermediate operations such as tempering.     

爆炸和滚压强化对不锈钢表面层组织结构的影响

对奥氏体不锈钢表面进行了爆炸强化、滚压强化和喷丸强化。爆炸强化时表面层内出现形变孪晶栅栏,位错线具有方向性、呈密布排列,局部山现ε马氏体、α马氏体和奥氏体超细晶粒的区域;滚压强化后表面层内也有就、孪晶栅栏出现,但位错以胞状结构的形式分布在奥氏体基体上;喷丸强化的表面层内孪晶栅栏十分致密,位错线仍以方向性排布,并无位错胞出现。表面层内组织结构出现差异,主要与变形速度和变形量有关,高速和较大的变形量可诱发α,ε马氏体转变和形成超细奥氏体晶粒,慢速变形时能促使位错胞的形成。本文还讨论了孪晶栅栏的形成方式及其内部构造。     

Characterization of laser hardened steels by laser induced ultrasonic surface waves

Ultrasonic surface waves are suitable for the characterization of surface hardened materials. This is shown on laser hardened turbine blades. The martensitic microstructure within the surface layer of surface hardened steels has a lower surface wave propagation velocity than the annealed or normalized substrate material. Because the propagation velocity depends on the ratio of layer thickness to wavelengthd/, its measurement allows the determination of the hardening depth. If the surface wave frequency is high enough, the surface wave propagates mainly within the hardened layer. A correlation of the surface wave velocity to the surface hardness has been found. Because the variation of the surface velocity in hardened steels is small, a high measurement accuracy is necessary to obtain the interesting hardening parameters with sufficient certainty. Therefore, a measuring arrangement has been developed where laser pulses, guided by optical fibers to the surface hardened structure, generate simultaneously surface wave pulses at two different positions. The two ultrasonic pulses are received by a piezoelectric transducer. The surface wave velocity is obtained from the time delay between these pulses which is determined by the cross-correlation method. To evaluate simultaneously surface waves with different penetration depths from the same signal acquisition, digital filtering has been used in connection with the cross-correlation.     

感应淬火对曲轴扭转疲劳性能的影响

目的研究感应淬火对曲轴扭转疲劳性能的影响,为曲轴的设计和制造工艺调整提供技术参考。方法开展淬火曲轴和未淬火曲轴的扭转疲劳强度试验,利用升降法得到疲劳试验结果,从试验数据和微观组织等方面开展分析和讨论。结果未经过淬火的曲轴在99.9%存活率下的扭转疲劳极限为967.6N·m,经过感应淬火的曲轴在99.9%存活率下的扭转疲劳极限为1361.2N·m。感应淬火后曲轴的表面形成深度约3.5 mm的淬火层,平均硬度为HV0.5600,金相组织为细针状马氏体。曲轴的失效情况均为连杆颈油孔处开裂。结论 38MnVS6非调质钢曲轴在感应淬火后的扭转疲劳极限提升了约41%,曲轴油孔内壁的加工缺陷是形成裂纹源的主要原因,对曲轴淬火层区域的油孔内壁进行一定的表面处理,可进一步提高曲轴的扭转疲劳强度。     

Monotonic and Cyclic Deformations of Case‐Hardened Steels Including Residual Stress Effects

Abstract: Monotonic and cyclic deformations of case‐hardened steel specimens under axial loading were investigated experimentally and analytically. A finite element (FE) model for the case‐hardened specimens was constructed to study multiaxial stresses due to different plastic flow behaviour between the case and the core, as well as to evaluate residual stress relaxation and redistribution subsequent to cyclic loading. The multiaxial stress is shown to increase the effective stress on the surface, and, therefore, unfavourable to yielding or fatigue crack nucleation. The residual stresses are shown to relax or redistribute, even in the elastic‐behaving region, when any part of a case‐hardened specimen or component undergoes plastic deformation. Multi‐layer models were used to analyse and predict monotonic and cyclic deformation behaviours of the case‐hardened specimen based on the core and case material properties, and the results are compared with the experimental as well as FE model results. The predicted monotonic stress–strain curves were close to the experimental curves, but the predicted cyclic stress–strain curves were higher than the experimental curves.     

C60—C70涂层的激光增碳强化效应

研究了Ｃ６０－Ｃ７０涂层对４５＾＃钢的激光增碳强化机理，对强化层组织和性能的分析表明：Ｃ６０－Ｃ７０涂使４５＾＃钢产生增碳强化区，得到了挖主亚共晶白口铸铁的定向凝固组织，由细小的马氏体」Ｍ「及莱氏体「Ｌｅ」组成，Ｍ中分布着大量微米级的多边形弥散相，并生成了由不同位向的碳化物细针束构成的组织，淬火后达到的平均硬度为ＨＲＣ６３．８，深冷处理后，平均硬度可达ＨＲＣ６５．４．     

Profilometry-Based Indentation Plastometry Testing for Characterization of Case-Hardened Steels

An attraction of the profilometry-based indentation plastometry (PIP) procedure is that, while it involves interrogation of volumes sufficiently large to ensure that bulk properties are obtained, it still allows stress–strain curves to be inferred for relatively small regions, such that local properties can be mapped where they are changing over short distances. It is employed here to obtain these characteristics as a function of depth in samples that have been case hardened by the diffusional penetration of carbon, to a depth of just over a mm. This has been done for a grade of steel that is commonly treated in this way. The thickness of the layer characterized by the PIP test is around 200 μm. In addition, curvature measurements on strip samples, after incremental removal of thin layers, have been used to evaluate the (compressive) residual stresses in near-surface regions. These range up to around 200 MPa. Such stresses have only a small effect on the PIP measurements. The carburization raises the peak yield stress from the base level of around 1000 MPa to about 1400 MPa, followed by considerable work hardening. The reliability of these PIP-derived stress–strain relationships has been confirmed by comparing experimental outcomes of Vickers hardness tests with FEM predictions based on their use.     

Einsatzhärten: Untersuchungen zur Änderung der Härteannahme nach isothermischer Umwandlung

Case hardening: Investigations on the change in hardenability after isothermal transformation To increase economic efficiency of case hardening processes great efforts are made in raising carburising temperature. One possibility to remove the coarse grain appearing after high temperature carburising is to integrate an isothermal transformation into the carburising procedure. Apart from a fine martensitic structure two extra effects appear if this technique is used giving reason to more research work. On the one hand there appears a reduction in hardenability of the investigated material. On the other hand bending strength increases towards conventionally case hardened samples.     

Laser Hardening of Austempered Ductile Cast Iron (ADI)*

Austempered ductile cast iron (ADI) has emerged as a major engineering material in recent years. In addition to high strength and relatively light weight (compared to steel), it has high ductility, good wear resistance and good damping capacity. It has many potential applications such as automotive components (e.g. crank shafts and gear boxes) as well as aircraft components (landing gears).

In many structural applications, (e.g. aircraft landing gear) it is often required that the material be hardened at the surface while the interior of the material must remain soft or ductile. The higher hardness at the surface layer imparts excellent wear resistance while the soft inner core provides higher toughness and fracture resistance. The conventional methods of surface hardening such as carburizing and nitriding or shot peening have several limitations, e.g. retained austenite, massive carbide formations and insufficient case depth. In recent years, there has been significant interest in use of laser in surface treating of materials. Surface hardening by means of laser is a very useful technique because of self quenching and minimum of distortion. Laser hardening can also improve significantly the surface properties such as wear and fatigue resistance.