食品中蛋白质质量评价方法的研究进展

不同食物中蛋白质的种类和含量不同,其氨基酸组成及比例也不同,因而对满足人体营养需求的贡献不同。蛋白质作为食物最基本的营养成分,其质量直接影响着人体健康。在全球人口激增、资源有限的情况下,科学合理的蛋白质质量评价方法对于人类合理膳食、获取充足营养、有效开发新型蛋白质资源等是非常重要的。因此,本文综合分析了食品中蛋白质质量评价方法的发展,并对蛋白质消化率校正氨基酸评分(protein digestibility corrected amino acid score,PDCAAS)和可消化氨基酸评分(digestibility indispensable amino acid score,DIAAS)展开详细讨论,重点阐述这两种评价方法的应用状况、优势及局限性,以期为探索优质蛋白质来源、研究蛋白质互补和开发高质量蛋白食品提供理论依据。     

Staphylococcal enterotoxin and its rapid identification in foods by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based methodology

The problem of Staphylococcus aureus and other species as contaminants in the food supply remains significant on a global level. Time and temperature abuse of a food product contaminated with enterotoxigenic staphylococci can result in formation of enterotoxin, which can produce foodborne illness when the product is ingested. Between 100 and 200 ng of enterotoxin can cause symptoms consistent with staphylococcal intoxication. Although humans are the primary reservoirs of contamination, animals, air, dust, and food contact surfaces can serve as vehicles in the transfer of this pathogen to the food supply. Foods may become contaminated during production or processing and in homes or food establishments, where the organism can proliferate to high concentrations and subsequently produce enterotoxin. The staphylococcal enterotoxins are highly heat stable and can remain biologically active after exposure to retort temperatures. Prior to the development of serological methods for the identification of enterotoxin, monkeys (gastric intubation) and later kittens (intravenous injection) were used in assays for toxin detection. When enterotoxins were identified as mature proteins that were antigenic, serological assays were developed for use in the laboratory analysis of foods suspected of containing preformed enterotoxin. More recently developed methods are tracer-labeled immunoassays. Of these methods, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays are highly specific, highly sensitive, and rapid for the detection of enterotoxin in foods.     

Raman spectroscopy a promising technique for quality assessment of meat and fish: A review

Raman spectroscopy data have been compared to different traditional methodologies such as protein solubility, apparent viscosity, water holding capacity, instrumental texture methods, dimethylamine content, peroxide values, and fatty acid composition commonly used to determine quality in fish and meat muscle treated under different conditions of handling, processing and storage through the changes of proteins, water and lipids of muscle food. It has been shown that Raman spectroscopy data are related to the results obtained with these traditional quality methods and could be used to evaluate muscle food quality. In addition, Raman spectroscopy provides structural information about the changes of proteins, water and lipids of muscle food that occur during the deterioration. Raman spectroscopy can also be used for determining muscle food identification. Besides, this spectroscopy technique has several advantages compared to traditional methods since it is a direct and non-invasive technique which requires small portions of sample.     

An investigation of hydrolytic techniques for the amino acid analysis of foodstuffs

A survey of hydrolytic methods for the amino acid analysis of foods is presented and the advantages and disadvantages of the methods are discussed. Amino acids were determined after hydrolysis of the proteins with hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, perchloric acid, p-toluene sulphonic acid and sodium hydroxide. The results are shown graphically using as examples a pure protein (casein) and a potential food protein of microfungal origin (Fusarium graminearum). The addition of some cation exchange resin to acids catalysed the hydrolysis of some peptide bonds containing aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glutamic acid, valine and isoleucine. Whilst several methods gave close agreement for the analysis of a pure protein, hydrolysis with 6 N -hydrochloric acid gave the largest yield of most amino acids in food proteins. With the exception of extracted soya meal, protection of cystine prior to hydrolysis gave higher values than direct hydrolysis.     

Nonmeat Protein Alternatives as Meat Extenders and Meat Analogs

Abstract: The direct consumption of vegetable proteins in food products has been increasing over the years because of animal diseases, global shortage of animal protein, strong demand for wholesome and religious (halal) food, and economic reasons. The increasing importance of legume and oilseed proteins in the manufacturing of various functional food products is due to their high‐protein contents. However, the greatest obstacle to utilizing these legumes and oilseeds is the presence of antinutrients; but these antinutrients can be successfully removed or inactivated by employing certain processing methods. In contrast, the potential negative impact of the antinutrients is partially balanced by the fact that they may have a health‐promoting role. Legumes and oilseeds provide well‐balanced amino acid profiles when consumed with cereals. Soybean proteins, wheat gluten, cottonseed proteins, and other plant proteins have been used for texturization. Texturized vegetable proteins can extend meat products while providing an economical, functional, and high‐protein food ingredient or can be consumed directly as a meat analog. Meat analogs are successful because of their healthy image (cholesterol free), meat‐like texture, and low cost. Mycoprotein is fungal in origin and is used as a high‐protein, low‐fat, health‐promoting food ingredient. Mycoprotein has a good taste and texture. Texturized vegetable proteins and a number of mycoprotein products are accepted as halal foods. This article summarizes information regarding the molecular, nutritional, and functional properties of alternative protein sources to meat and presents current knowledge to encourage further research to optimize the beneficial effects of alternative protein sources.     

Prediction of apparent heal protein digestibility in pigs with a two-step in-vitro method

The use of a two-step in-vitro method to predict the in-vivo ileal digestibility of proteins in pigs was investigated. It proved not possible to predict accurately the ileal protein digestibility with the in-vitro method. By dividing the samples into groups of closely related products, a good relationship (r² = 0.93) between in-vivo and in-vitro data was only obtained for wheat products, where only five samples were analysed. For beans, peas, rapeseed products and soya bean products it was still not possible to predict the in-vivo protein digestibility (r² = 0.03-0.60). The in vivo-in vitro relationship was mainly determined by the properties of the proteins and the presence of antinutritional factors, such as lectins and trypsin inhibitors. The first influences both the in-vitro and in-vivo protein degradability and the latter only reduces the in-vivo degradability by stimulating the secretion of endogenous protein. It is suggested that, with the in-vitro method, real ileal digestibility of proteins is predicted. The apparent ileal protein digestibility can only be predicted with the in-vitro method after making corrections for the influence of these antinutritional factors on the secretion of endogenous protein. Possibly corrections are also needed for microbial protein, and protein which is solubilised in the small intestine but not absorbed because of the physical state of the chyme.     

What Do We Know About Chain Actors’ Evaluation of New Food Technologies? A Systematic Review of Consumer and Farmer Studies

New food technologies, such as genetic modification, food fortification, and processing technologies, are of growing interest for future food security and safety. For ensuring successful implementation of such technologies, consumers and other food supply chain actors should embrace them. We present a systematic review to identify and compare key factors of supply chain actors’ evaluation of new food technologies. Evaluation encompasses indicators such as likelihood or intention to perform a behavior, perceived benefits/risks, willingness to pay, acceptance/adoption, and attitudes. Results from 183 studies showed several imbalances in research. Although studies mainly focused on (1) genetically modified foods, (2) by consumers, (3) in developed countries, only very few studies have targeted other food technologies, other supply chain actors such as farmers (13 studies) or processors (two studies), or developing countries (43 studies). With respect to consumers’ evaluation, key determinants were trust in institutions, information assessment, perceived risks and benefits, attitudes toward the product or technology, perceived behavioral control, quality perception of the product, and impact on health. Farmers’ evaluation of new food technologies was explained by the factors of perceived risk and benefits and of actual source of information. For the few processor evaluation studies, no convergence of factors could be reached. This systematic review contributes to a better understanding of consumers’ and farmers’ evaluation behavior and opens up avenues for future research on supply chain actors’ food technology evaluations. The differences in the conceptualization and measurement of extracted factors demonstrate the need for standardized approaches in future studies.     

Conditions Governing Food Protein Amyloid Fibril Formation. Part II: Milk and Legume Proteins

Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors impact amyloid formation of food proteins. We here review the impact of various conditions and food constituents on amyloid fibrillation of milk and legume proteins. Much less is known about casein and legume protein amyloid‐like fibril formation than about that of whey proteins such as β‐lactoglobulin, α‐lactalbumin, and bovine serum albumin. Proteins of both sources are often studied after heating under strong acidic (pH < 3) conditions. The latter induces changes in protein conformation and often peptide hydrolysis. At higher pH values, alcohols, chaotropic and/or reducing agents induce the conformational changes required to enhance fibrillation. Different types of food proteins can impact each other's fibrillation. Also, the presence of other food constituents can enhance or reduce it. No general conclusions on the mechanisms or impact of different food constituents on food proteins can be made. Optimal conditions for AF formation, that is, heating for several days at low pH, are rare in food processing. However, this does not exclude the possibility of AF formation in food products. For example, slow cooking of hydrolyzed proteins may enhance it. Future research should focus on the prevalence of AFs in complex food systems or model systems relevant for food processing.     

微生物利用一碳底物生产单细胞蛋白研究进展

世界人口的持续增长导致肉类、乳制品等高蛋白食品的需求大幅增加，给我国食品蛋白的供应带来了较大挑战。微生物能够利用二氧化碳、甲烷、甲醇等一碳化合物生产高质量的单细胞蛋白，这种新型蛋白可应用于食品工业。建立微生物蛋白绿色生物制造的食品蛋白生产体系，对保障国家食物蛋白供给安全十分重要。此外，微生物转化一碳化合物制备单细胞蛋白的过程还可以减少碳排放、缓解温室效应，实现可持续发展。本文主要总结微生物单细胞蛋白在食品工业中的应用；论述近年来微生物利用一碳化合物高效生产单细胞蛋白的研究进展；阐述天然一碳利用微生物的代谢网络机制以及改造前景；展望了利用合成生物学改造微生物从一碳底物生产单细胞蛋白的前景，旨在为微生物单细胞蛋白的商业化生产提供思路。     

Development and testing of protein mixtures based on blood and collagen

Using the results of the chemical amino acid analyses of the unconventional proteins blood, collagen and wool and the conventional proteins soya, maize and casein, protein mixtures were developed. The quality of the protein mixtures was estimated in feeding experiments with growing male Sprague-Dawley rats and expressed as protein efficiency ratio (PER). Different blood parameters and the weight of some organs were also recorded. Blood, collagen and wool protein are very poor in different essential amino acids, therefore their quality is very low, it can however be significantly improved when they are fed in mixtures with other animal or plant proteins of higher quality. In mixtures of three components only containing blood (10--40%), collagen (10--25%) and casein (50 to 70%) the deficit in the content of essential amino acids cannot be compensated. Rats fed with such diets showed, however, decreased food intake and depressed growth. The relative PER values of those mixtures were 44--69% of that of casein. The best supplementing effect on the imbalanced amino acid patterns was achieved when the protein mixture was developed from 4 or 5 different proteins. The quality of these five-component-mixtures amounted to 94--100% of that of casein. In these mixtures the percentage of casein in the protein mixture amounted to only 35% and soya or maize to 15%. Exactly 50% of the protein supply could be derived from hydrolysates of the unconventional proteins blood, collagen and wool.     

蛋白界面膜及其评价方法研究进展

食品中乳化类产品的稳定性决定了其价值和顾客满意度,天然蛋白的乳化特性多年来受到食品胶体和界面科学领域广泛关注。蛋白吸附到水油界面形成的黏弹性薄膜具有降低界面张力、维持乳液稳定的特性。研究蛋白界面膜的物化性质有助于了解蛋白大分子在水油界面的吸附规律,能够用于评价、表征和预测蛋白乳液稳定性,并为优化蛋白乳液稳定性提供理论基础。基于此,该文对水包油乳液蛋白界面膜结构和影响因素进行探讨,系统综述了目前用于评价蛋白质界面特性的手段和方法,包括微观成像技术、热力学技术、光谱技术和界面流变学技术等,以研究蛋白类乳化液性能在宏观和微观层面的联系,为蛋白质界面膜在乳化食品中的应用提供参考。     

Composition,physicochemical properties of pea protein and its application in functional foods

Abstract

Field pea is one of the most important leguminous crops over the world. Pea protein is a relatively new type of plant proteins and has been used as a functional ingredient in global food industry. Pea protein includes four major classes (globulin, albumin, prolamin, and glutelin), in which globulin and albumin are major storage proteins in pea seeds. Globulin is soluble in salt solutions and can be further classified into legumin and vicilin. Albumin is soluble in water and regarded as metabolic and enzymatic proteins with cytosolic functions. Pea protein has a well-balanced amino acid profile with high level of lysine. The composition and structure of pea protein, as well as the processing conditions, significantly affect its physical and chemical properties, such as hydration, rheological characteristics, and surface characteristics. With its availability, low cost, nutritional values and health benefits, pea protein can be used as a novel and effective alternative to substitute for soybean or animal proteins in functional food applications.     

Problem of the rational classification of dietary proteins

A classification of food proteins has been proposed based on two new qualitative parameters: potential biological value (BVp) and compensation coefficient (C). BVp determines the balance degree and agreement with the body requirement of food protein amino acids. The C coefficient estimates the value of the food protein aminogram improvement at the expense of the endogenous essential amino acid reserve. According to these parameters food proteins can be divided into 4 classes. Class I includes proper alimentary specific food proteins (milk and egg proteins) possessing mean values of BVp and high C coefficients. Class II proteins are characterized by rather high BVp values, i.e. by a good balance of essential amino acids and C coefficient reaching 0, they are represented by animal proteins (those of meat and fish), and vegetable proteins (those of soybean, rape and cotton). Class III contains proteins of food grains characterized by low BVp values and C coefficients. Class IV contains proteins with zero values of BVp, containing no essential amino acids (for example, gelatin, hemoglobin, zein), but showing high C coefficients. In such cases the nature of compensation differs from that of class I proteins, it is paradoxic and temporary.     

Contribution of European research to risk analysis

The European Commission's, Quality of Life Research Programme, Key Action 1—Health, Food & Nutrition is mission-oriented and aims, amongst other things, at providing a healthy, safe and high-quality food supply leading to reinforced consumer confidence in the safety of European food. Its objectives also include the enhancing of the competitiveness of the European food supply. Key Action 1 is currently supporting a number of different types of European collaborative projects in the area of risk analysis. The objectives of these projects range from the development and validation of prevention strategies including the reduction of consumers risks; development and validation of new modelling approaches; harmonization of risk assessment principles, methodologies, and terminology; standardization of methods and systems used for the safety evaluation of transgenic food; providing of tools for the evaluation of human viral contamination of shellfish and quality control; new methodologies for assessing the potential of unintended effects of genetically modified (genetically modified) foods; development of a risk assessment model for Cryptosporidium parvum related to the food and water industries; to the development of a communication platform for genetically modified organism, producers, retailers, regulatory authorities and consumer groups to improve safety assessment procedures, risk management strategies and risk communication; development and validation of new methods for safety testing of transgenic food; evaluation of the safety and efficacy of iron supplementation in pregnant women; evaluation of the potential cancer-preventing activity of pro- and pre-biotic ('synbiotic') combinations in human volunteers. An overview of these projects is presented here.     

Effect of food intake on protein quality measured in chicks by traditional or biochemical methods

Previous studies have shown that the activities of the hepatic enzymes xanthine dehydrogenase and nucleoside phosphorylase, as well as the uric acid excreted, can be used to determine the quality of the protein consumed in chickens, in a short time and using a small amount of the test protein. A common observation in protein quality evaluation is that the food intake of the control animals is considerably greater than that observed in those receiving proteins of low quality. Since this can affect the results, this study measured the quality of garbanzo bean and black bean proteins in chickens fed these beans ad libitum, feeding the bean diets at the level observed in the controls (soy protein+methionine) by enteral intubation or pair feeding the controls with the amount of food consumed by the chickens receiving the bean diets. In every case, protein quality was determined by protein efficiency ratio, net protein utilisation or the biochemical methods used in this study. The results showed that, when fed ad libitum, the animals assigned to the bean diets exhibited a lower food intake than the controls but, by tube feeding, food intake was made equal in both groups. Equal consumption, between these groups, was also obtained by reducing the amount of food offered to the controls to the levels measured in the groups assigned to the bean diets (pair feeding). These feeding strategies had a marked effect on growth, carcass protein content, protein catabolism and also in the results of protein quality. Thus, the control whose intake was reduced grew less, accumulated less protein in tissues and catabolised more of the protein consumed than the control fed ad libitum. In contrast, the chickens assigned to the bean diets, but whose food intake was increased by tube feeding, grew better, accumulated more protein in tissues and catabolised less protein. In general, the results of these experiments confirm the effectiveness of the biochemical methods for estimating protein quality and indicate that the protein quality of both garbanzo beans and black beans increased when it was measured at a food intake equivalent to that measured in the control animals. Since the overall purpose of this study was to evaluate techniques for protein quality determination meant to be applicable to humans nutrition rather than poultry nutrition, single proteins were used instead of combinations of proteins. © 1998 Society of Chemical Industry.     

Effect of protein–starch interactions on starch retrogradation and implications for food product quality

Starch retrogradation is a consequential part of food processing that greatly impacts the texture and acceptability of products containing both starch and proteins, but the effect of proteins on starch retrogradation has only recently been explored. With the increased popularity of plant-based proteins in recent years, incorporation of proteins into starch-based products is more commonplace. These formulation changes may have unforeseen effects on ingredient functionality and sensory outcomes of starch-containing products during storage, which makes the investigation of protein–starch interactions and subsequent impact on starch retrogradation and product quality essential. Protein can inhibit or promote starch retrogradation based on its exposed residues. Charged residues promote charge–dipole interactions between starch-bound phosphate and protein, hydrophobic groups restrict amylose release and reassociation, while hydrophilic groups impact water/molecular mobility. Covalent bonds (disulfide linkages) formed between proteins may enhance starch retrogradation, while glycosidic bonds formed between starch and protein during high-temperature processing may limit starch retrogradation. With these protein–starch interactions in mind, products can be formulated with proteins that enhance or delay textural changes in starch-containing products. Future work to understand the impact of starch–protein interactions on retrogradation should focus on integrating the fields of proteomics and carbohydrate chemistry. This interdisciplinary approach should result in better methods to characterize mechanisms of interaction between starch and proteins to optimize their food applications. This review provides useful interpretations of current literature characterizing the mechanistic effect of protein on starch retrogradation.     

Food protein functionality: A comprehensive approach

Food protein functionality has classically been viewed from the perspective of how single molecules or protein ingredients function in solutions and form simple colloidal structures. Based on this approach, tests on protein solutions are used to produce values for solubility, thermal stability, gelation, emulsifying, foaming, fat binding and water binding to name a few. While this approach is beneficial in understanding the properties of specific proteins and ingredients, it is somewhat restricted in predicting performance in real foods where the complexities of ingredients and processing operations have a significant affect on the colloidal structures and therefore overall properties of the final food product. In addition, focusing on proteins as just biopolymers used to create food structures ignores the biological functions of proteins in the diet. These can be beneficial, as in providing amino acids for protein synthesis or bioactive peptides, or these can be detrimental, as in causing a food allergic response. This review will focus on integrating the colloidal/polymer and biological aspects of protein functionality. This will be done using foams and gels to illustrate colloidal/polymer aspects and bioactive peptides and allergenicity to demonstrate biological function.     

Detection of wheat gliadins in heated food by reversed-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography

To recognize and determine the wheat gliadins in unheated gluten-free food for coeliac patients the immunological methods such as ELISA can be used. In heated food (above 80 degrees-90 degrees C) these methods fail wholly or in part to achieve the quantitative determination of wheat gliadin. The changes in protein patterns after heat treatment are also revealed by the RP-HPLC of wheat gliadins and some peaks appear, which are characteristic for heat treated wheat flour. Using these peaks, about 2% admixture of wheat flour (T. aestivum, T. durum) as well as of rye flour can be detected. In foods which contain more than 50% skim milk the addition of only at least 5% of these flours can be detected. The ethanolic extracts of foods were concentrated by freeze-drying prior to analysis by HPLC. The ethanol-soluble non-dialysable food components affect the quantitative determination of wheat or rye proteins by means of peak areas. Selective enrichment is a possibility. The RP-HPLC-analysis of ethanol-soluble proteins makes it possible to detect heated flours of wheat and rye (cooked, roller-dried, extrusion-cooked) in glutenfree food.     

食品中同一目标微生物不同检测方法之间的比对研究进展

随着世界各国食品贸易往来加剧, 不同国家或区域对同类食品中同一目标微生物存在不同的标准检测方法。各国标准方法正式版本发布前要进行方法比对研究, 新版标准方法的各项性能参数要优于旧版标准方法才对外公布并作为官方认可的标准检测方法。针对食品中同一目标微生物, 基于分子生物学及免疫学等原理新研发出的检测方法能大大提高检测效率, 但必须要与传统的标准检测方法(基于培养法)进行科学系统的比较性验证研究, 只有取得等效性评价结果后才能作为一种有效的替代检测方法; 另外, 不同国家针对同类食品中的同一目标微生物的检测方法由于检测流程不同也同样需要进行等效性评价, 两种检测方法的等效性评价结果能够为食品在全球不同国家之间的进出口贸易的高效放行提供科学有效的数据支撑。本文阐述了基于食品中同一目标微生物不同检测方法比较研究的进展, 分析讨论并总结了不同检测方法之间进行比较研究的流程和要求, 介绍了ISO 16140和国际标准方法委员会(Association of Official Analytical Chemists, AOAC)指南的原则以及其在方法比对研究中的应用情况、需考虑的因素等。此外, 本文也讨论了方法比对研究领域所面临的一些挑战以及未来的研究方向。该文为今后研究开发与采纳新的食品微生物检测方法提供了系统科学和全面的方法比较和确认的说明, 具有十分重要的参考价值。     

A review of methods used for investigation of protein–phenolic compound interactions

Interactions between the different compounds present in foods are common and have influence on the nutritional and functional properties of food products. Among a wide range of these interactions, the formation of complexes between proteins and phenolic compounds seems to be the most important issue. Complexation of the phenolic compounds with proteins can be analysed considering several aspects. These complexes might strongly affect nutritional potential of polyphenols by masking their antioxidant capacity, and on the other hand might have influence on the structure of proteins which may cause their precipitation or decrease susceptibility to digestion. The complexity of protein–phenolic compound interactions is a challenge for food analysts and forced researchers to establish a wide range of analytical methods, allowing determination of complexes formation. The main aim of this review is to give researchers an overview of the currently used methods that can be applied to study the interactions between proteins and phenolic compounds.