A simple method for estimating transient heat transfer in slab-on-ground floors

The problem of calculating transient heat transfer in concrete floor slabs is complicated due to ground coupling, which can require the numerical solution of two or three-dimensional transient conduction equations. This paper presents a simplified method for calculating transient slab-on-ground heat transfer that can be incorporated within hourly simulation programs. The method assumes that there are two primary one-dimensional paths for heat transfer from a ground-coupled floor slab: (1) one-dimensional heat transfer from the perimeter of the slab to the ambient and (2) one-dimensional heat transfer between the slab interior surface and a portion of the soil beneath the slab. The perimeter heat transfer is assumed to occur at quasi-steady state and is characterized in terms of a perimeter heat loss factor (F_p). Transient heat transfer within the slab and ground are modeled using a simple thermal circuit employing three nodes with an adiabatic boundary condition at a specified depth within the soil underneath the slab. Although some simulation models consider this type of two-path model, there appears to be no validation of this approach and there is no guidance for specifying perimeter heat loss factors and underfloor soil depths and node locations for the thermal circuit. In the current paper, results from detailed two-dimensional finite-element models for typical floor constructions and soil properties were used to identify (1) locations for nodes within the slab and soil, (2) correlations for soil depth as a function of soil properties associated with the underfloor adiabatic boundary condition, and (3) correlations for perimeter heat loss factor as a function of soil properties and edge insulation levels for different constructions. Transient heat transfer results from the simple model compared well with results from the finite-element program for different floor constructions, edge insulation, soil properties, locations, and times of year.     

Analysis of the influence of installation thermal bridges on windows performance: The case of clay block walls

The building's energy performance is the result not only of material and component performances, but also of the way the components are interconnected. Concerning windows, their energy performance, which is usually evaluated by using the glass and frame heat transfer coefficients and the linear heat transfer coefficients of the glazing spacer, depends also on the frame installation. In this paper the entity of thermal losses due to the frame installation has been evaluated in terms of linear thermal transmittance calculated in accordance with the standard EN ISO 10211:2007 using THERM 5.2. The analysis of thermal bridges between a wooden frame window installed into two different kinds of external clay block walls has been carried out. The linear thermal transmittances have been calculated for three cases regarding the position (external, internal, and intermediate) and three concerning the insulation of the hole perimeter (non insulated, insulated and with insulation over fixed frame). The impact of the window installation on thermal losses has been estimated and its dependence on different sizes has been evaluated. A new graphical representation has been suggested. The frame position and the configuration of the window hole insulation result to have a relevant impact on the overall thermal performance of the considered window.     

Heat loss characteristics for a typical solar domestic hot water storage

It is common practice to predict the performance of solar domestic hot water (SDHW) systems by computer simulation. This process relies on the accurate specification of the system's physical and thermal characteristics, and is often based on a number of simplifying assumptions. An important aspect of system performance is storage heat loss characteristics; however, these are often represented by an average heat loss coefficient or U-value that does not account for the complex geometry of the thermal storage or the interaction of the various inlet and outlet ports that may act as thermal conduits. In addition, most solar storage models assume that the tank temperature profile is one-dimensional and that conduction within the tank wall is negligible. To investigate these effects, tests were conducted on a typical thermal storage used in SDHW applications and included a cool-down test and a heat diffusion test sequence. The values derived from these test sequences were then compared to computer predictions based on estimated thermal properties. In addition, the basic assumptions typically used in the computer modelling of solar storage heat losses (e.g., one-dimensional temperature profiles, minimal tank wall conduction, uniform wall heat loss) were investigated, particularly in the context of a thermally stratified thermal storage.     

Impact of sun patch and three-dimensional heat transfer descriptions on the accuracy of a building’s thermal behavior prediction

A thermal transient numerical model (M_3D) which considers the three-dimensional heat transfer through the envelope of a room and the sun patch through a window has been developed and validated in a recent paper. The use of a refined spatial and temporal discretization allows considering more precise interactions between the sun patch projection with the structure and quick time perturbations in the stresses. This is particularly necessary for highly insulated and low energy consumption buildings. In this new paper, M_3D is subsequently transformed to simpler configurations, close to classical modelling thermal building simulation software that neglects the sun patch and the 3D heat transfer, in order to quantify the main contributions of this model. A first configuration is to consider one-dimensional heat conduction for the envelope and the transmitted solar radiation is only projected onto the floor (M_1D). A second configuration considers also one-dimensional heat conduction but the transmitted beam radiation falls on each wall or floor that is impacted (M_1D,sp). Comparison between experimental data and numerical results of these three models shows, as expected, that M_1D and M_1D,sp are less accurate than M_3D. This is particularly true when wanting to evaluate surface temperature distributions or heating power evolution in winter.     

CFD modelling of transparent bubble cavity envelopes for energy efficient greenhouses

Traditional greenhouses with single glazing have very poor thermal performance and the energy use for providing a productive internal environment is high. A cavity envelope formed by two transparent membranes and filled with transparent liquid bubbles can provide the greenhouse with super thermal performance. The liquid bubbles in the cavity transmit daylight while providing a thick blanket of insulation, thus reducing heat losses in winter and solar gains in summer. A computer model has been developed to simulate the thermal performance of a transparent bubble cavity envelope and the internal environment of the greenhouse. It has been found that the cavity convective heat transfer coefficient, equivalent thermal conductivity and thermal transmittance of a transparent bubble cavity envelope increase with bubble diameter and porosity as well as the internal–external temperature difference when bubbles are not compact in the cavity. The equivalent thermal conductivity and thermal resistance also increase with cavity width but the cavity convective heat transfer coefficient and thermal transmittance decrease with the increase in cavity width. A greenhouse with the transparent bubble cavity envelope has a better thermal environment with a significantly less energy requirement than does a traditional greenhouse.     

Calculation of the steady-state heat transfer through a slab-on-ground floor

An analytic formula is derived for the steady-state heat transfer through a slab-on-ground floor, with and without thermal insulation, based on the solution of the fundamental heat transfer equation with relevant boundary conditions.

So far as the building dimensions are concerned, the heat loss depends only on a “characteristic length” of the floor, defined as the floor area divided by half the exposed perimeter, a result which greatly simplifies the expression of heat losses and their evaluation for a building of arbitrary shape. The heat transfer is restricted by the thickness of the external walls, surface resistance and by any applied thermal insulation. The influence of these factors is combined appropriately so as to permit the straightforward evaluation of the thermal transmittance of the floor for any wall thickness and insulation thickness.     

轻钢龙骨复合墙体三维导热有限元分析

本文利用有限元软件ANSYS对C型轻钢龙骨复合墙体进行了三维导热数值模拟，着重进行了腹板开孔轻钢龙骨复合墙体的导热计算，根据模拟得到的墙体热流量场、温度场，分析了开孔排数、开孔的长度、宽度、孔的横向间距和纵向间距以及龙骨翼缘宽度对墙体导热性能的影响情况和热桥问题。模拟分析结果表明：基于腹板开孔的轻钢龙骨复合墙体能有效降低热桥效应，合理选取开孔参数，即可使其平均传热系数很好地满足寒冷地区的节能使用要求，使其在我国寒冷地区作为住宅外墙推广应用成为可能。     

Energy and cost evaluation of thermal bridge correction in Mediterranean climate

In the cold climate of continental Europe the correction of thermal bridges in buildings is a mandatory issue, as in these areas they produce not only heat losses but frequently also condensation and mould growth.In mild Mediterranean climate thermal bridges also cause an increase in energy consumption, but usually do not present condensation effects. In Italy, the current regulations for new buildings only recommend but do not impose the thermal bridge correction, which usually needs extra costs during construction and refurbishment phases.This paper presents a study on the effects of thermal bridges for two building types (terraced houses and semi-detached houses) and three current envelope solutions in Italian climate, which may be considered representative of mild Mediterranean climate. The buildings are characterised by reinforced concrete frameworks and clay block walls; the thermal performance of the envelopes complies with Italian regulations for new constructions. In a first step the impact of thermal bridges on both heating and cooling energy demand is studied; then the economic convenience of correcting such thermal bridges is assessed by calculating the discounted payback period referred to the additional costs of construction and refurbishment.     

利用ANSYS计算异型围护结构中的热桥线传热系数

热桥对于建筑围护结构的整体节能计算、内表面的结露温度评估有着很大的影响。本文首先介绍了目前国内外建筑围护结构中热桥的传热计算方法及其研究现状,阐述了确定结构性热桥线传热系数的一般方法。然后通过对二维稳态传热模拟软件PTDA(Planar Temperature Distribution and Analysis)进行的模拟对比分析,提出了利用ANSYS有限元计算软件计算异型围护结构中热桥线传热系数的方法,该方法对实际工程节能计算起参考作用。     

敦煌莫高窟热环境模拟研究

通过FLUENT软件模拟对比研究乔木的遮阴作用对莫高窟热环境的影响。结论如下:三维乔木阴影区的空气温度较低,背风区域出现高温;三维乔木的遮阴作用仅对局地热环境产生影响,而对窟区整体的热环境及热岛强度影响微弱;通过调整窟区绿化的种植密度,能够改善甚至消除窟区背风区域的高热环境。     

Development of a radiant heating and cooling model for building energy simulation software

Efficient radiant heating and cooling systems are promising technologies in slashing energy bills and improving occupant thermal comfort in buildings with low-energy demands such as houses and residential buildings. However, the thermal performance of radiant systems in buildings has not been fully understood and accounted for in currently available building energy simulation software. The challenging tasks to improve the applicability of radiant systems are the development of an accurate prediction model and its integration in the energy simulation software. This paper addresses the development of a semi-analytical model for radiant heating and cooling systems for integration in energy simulation software that use the one-dimensional numerical modeling to calculate the heat transfer within the building construction assemblies. The model combines the one-dimensional numerical model of the energy simulation software with a two-dimensional analytical model. The advantage of this model over the one-dimensional one is that it accurately predict the contact surface temperature of the circuit-tubing and the adjacent medium, required to compute the boiler/chiller power, and the minimum and maximum ceiling/floor temperatures, required for moisture condensation (ceiling cooling systems), thermal comfort (heating floor systems) and controls. The model predictions for slab-on-grade heating systems compared very well with the results from a full two-dimensional numerical model.     

Effect of 2D modelling of thermal bridges on the energy performance of buildings: Numerical application on the Matisse apartment

This paper describes the modelling approach used to accurately evaluate the effect of thermal bridges on the energy performance of buildings. The heat transfers in the intersections of walls were initially modelled in Sisley software. These models were then reduced and integrated in Clim 2000. The simulation results were compared against the models obtained from thermal regulation values. For standard wall configurations, it was seen that the detailed modelling of heat transfers provides an additional accuracy of about 5% in terms of the evaluation of the building’s heat losses.     

The impact of thermal bridges on the energy demand of buildings with double brick wall constructions

The implementation of the European Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD) is a milestone towards the improvement of energy efficiency in the building sector. However, even in cases where impressive measures can be implemented in the densely built urban environment, the less glamorous measure of building's envelope thermal insulation remains a prerequisite towards the improvement of the building's energy efficiency. Despite the insulation requirements specified by national regulations, thermal bridges in the building's envelope remain a weak spot in the constructions. Moreover, in many countries construction practices tend to implement only partially the insulation measures foreseen by regulations. As a result, thermal losses are in practice greater than those predicted during the design stage. This paper presents a study on representative wall thermal insulation configurations used in Greek buildings, in order to investigate the impact of the thermal bridges on the energy consumption. The double wall construction, used widely in Greece and not only there, is rather susceptible to the occurrence of thermal bridges, in contrast to a typical thermal insulating façade, like the one applied in Central Europe. The analysis of the thermal bridges’ impact will in that sense also highlight the potential for energy renovation measures in older buildings.     

U型管地热换热器热作用半径的数值模拟

针对竖直U型埋管地热换热器土壤传热范围的问题,建立了U型埋地换热器三维非稳态传热模型。U型管与土壤间的传热受诸多因素的影响,本文采用CFD软件FLUENT对U型管的进口温度、进口流速、运行时间、土壤初始温度以及土壤热物性在夏季不同工况下对U型管热作用半径的影响进行了数值模拟研究。本文得出的结果可以用来指导地源热泵工程的设计。     

Simulation of dynamic linear thermal bridges using a boundary element method model in the frequency domain

Heat losses through thermal bridges often lead to building pathologies generated by moisture condensation. Thus, thermal bridges need to be considered in the building design phase in order to avoid both heat loss and the occurrence of these pathologies later on. The linear thermal bridge is often taken into account at the design stage by using a pre-defined ψ coefficient. This ψ factor is listed in several national regulation/standards for various types of linear thermal bridges on the assumption of a steady state condition.This paper studies linear thermal bridges more realistically by assuming a dynamic behavior that allows the simulation of transient states where the external and internal temperatures may vary over time. The problem is solved by a boundary element model (BEM), formulated in the frequency domain. Time solutions are obtained afterwards by means of inverse Fourier transformations, which can simulate any external temperature variations. After an experimental validation of the BEM model, a series of linear thermal simulations was performed to illustrate the applicability of the proposed model. It further allows the importance of computing thermal bridges to be verified dynamically.     

底层地面的传热过程及热工设计

准确分析底层地面的传热过程对底层地面的热工设计和居民的健康与舒适有着非常重要的意义。本文首先应用三维稳定传热模型计算出室内单层材料地面的热流密度、然后应用一维非稳态模型计算出多层材料地面的热流密度,并应用三维稳定传热模型计算出的室内单层材料地面热流密度的一阶导数,说明室内地面热流密度与室内地面所处点之间的关系。通过以上的计算和分析,并结合地面热工设计规范,对地面热工设计提出几点建议。     

A nodal thermal model for photovoltaic systems: Impact on building temperature fields and elements of validation for tropical and humid climatic conditions

This article deals with both an experimental study and a numerical model of the thermal behaviour of a building whose roof is equipped with photovoltaic panels (PV panels). The aim of this study is to show the impact of the PV panels in terms of level of insulation or solar protection for the building. Contrary to existing models, the one presented here will allow us to determine both the temperature field of the building and the electric production of the PV array. Moreover, an experimental study has been conducted in La Reunion Island, where the climate is tropical and humid, with a strong solar radiation. In such conditions, it is important to minimise the thermal load through the roof of the building. The thermal model is integrated in a building simulation code and is able to predict the thermal impact of PV panels installed on buildings in several configurations and also their production of electricity. Basically, the PV panel is considered as a complex wall within which coupled heat transfer occurs. Conduction, convection and radiation heat transfer equations are solved simultaneously to simulate the global thermal behaviour of the building envelope including the PV panels; this is an approach we call ‘integrated modelling’ of PV panels. The experimental study is used to give elements of validation for the numerical model and a sensitivity analysis has been run to put in evidence the governing parameters. It has been shown that the radiative properties of the PV panel have a great impact on the temperature field of the tested building and the determination of these parameters has to be taken with care.     

A Heat Transfer Model for Firefighters' Protective Clothing

An accurate and flexible model of heat transfer through firefighter protective clothing has many uses, including investigating the degree of protection, in terms of burn injury and heat stress, of a particular fabric assembly and analyzing cheaply and quickly the expected performance of new or candidate fabric designs or fabric combinations.This paper presents the first stage in developing a heat transfer model for firefighters' protective clothing. The protective fabrics are assumed to be dry, which means no moisture from perspiration, and the fabric temperatures considered are below the point of thermal degradation, such as melting or charring. Many firefighter burns occur even when there is no thermal degradation of their protective gear. A planar geometry of the fabric layers is assumed with one-dimensional heat transfer. The forward-reverse model is used for radiative heat transfer. The accuracy of the model is tested by comparing time-dependent temperatures from both within and on the surface of a typical fabric assembly to those obtained experimentally. Overall, the model performed well, especially inside the garment where the temperature difference between the experiment and the stimulation was within 5°C. The predicted temperature on the outer shell of the garment differed most from experimental values, by much as 24°C. This was probably due to the absence of fabric-specific optical properties, such as transmissivity and reflectivity, used for model input.     

Modeling thermal response of steel–concrete floor systems in a furnace

A methodology was developed to predict the thermal exposure from a furnace onto a floor assembly specimen. In furnaces with low conductivity wall linings and gas fired burners with complete combustion, the gas attenuation effects were determined to be small indicating that radiation between surfaces and convection are the dominant modes of heat transfer. This was modeled by assigning the internal furnace wall temperature to the furnace time–temperature exposure and performing a three-dimensional heat transfer analysis on the specimen. The furnace exposure model predicted heat transfer to the specimen surface that was within 5–14% of measured heat fluxes. The proposed furnace exposure methodology was used to predict the temperature rise of steel in a floor assembly where the test specimen can view itself as well as the furnace, making radiation exchange an important aspect of the problem. Predictions were within 5–10% of the measured values, which was within the experimental uncertainty.