Numerical evaluation of the capacity of galvanic anode systems for patch repair of reinforced concrete structures

Cathodic protection (CP) is an electrochemical repair or corrosion prevention technique for steel structures exposed to a corrosive environment. For reinforced concrete (RC) usually impressed current CP is used, due to the comparably high resistivity of the concrete, serving as electrolyte. Nevertheless, the market provides a wide range of galvanic anode systems for RC structures. Their most common use is the application within the framework of partial concrete replacement due to chloride-induced corrosion. This patch repair is often accompanied by the so-called anode ring effect, causing accelerated corrosion of the rebar in the substrate concrete in the vicinity of repair patches. This is caused by the cathodic capabilities of the repassivated rebar. Galvanic anodes are reported to prevent this effect. In this paper, a numerical model is proposed, which is capable of determining the effectiveness of the method dependent on, for example, the type and quantity of anodes, rebar content, and geometry or climatic conditions. The method is presented for a specific set of input parameters and the applicability is discussed against the background of different protection criteria.     

Electrochemical measurements of cathodic protection for reinforced concrete piles in a marine environment using embedded corrosion monitoring sensors

This study developed a sensor to monitor the corrosion of reinforced concrete structures. Concrete pile specimens with embedded sensors were used to obtain data on corrosion and cathodic protection for bridge columns in a real marine environment. Corrosion potential, cathodic protection current density, concrete resistivity, and the degree of depolarization potential were measured with the embedded sensors in concrete pile specimens. The cathodic protection (CP) state was accurately monitored by sensors installed in underwater, tidal, splash, and atmospheric zones. The protection potential measurements confirmed that the CP by Zn-mesh sacrificial anode was fairly effective in the marine pile environment. The protection current densities in the tidal, splash zones were 2–3 times higher than those in underwater and atmospheric zones. The concrete resistivity in the tidal and splash zones was decreased through the installation of both mortar-embedded Zn-mesh (sacrificial anode) and outside an FRP jacket (cover). Considering the CP, the cathodic prevention was more effective than cathodic protection.     

Use of the polarisation shift criterion to evaluate cathodic protection of on-grade steel storage tanks

The cathodic protection (CP) of on-grade coated steel storage tanks deployed on reinforced concrete slabs in soils of 20–30?kΩ?cm resistivity was evaluated for two different time periods 9 years apart. The required CP current was calculated and the ohmic drop was measured using the instant-off potential method. The resulting polarisation shift is a useful indicator of the level of protection afforded and whether the potential criterion or the polarisation shift criterion is fulfilled. It was also noted that the greater the ground resistivity, the less corrosive the environment for an on-grade steel structure.     

Application of nickel-coated carbon fibre material in cathodic protection of underground-buried steel structures

The present paper reports the results of a preliminary study on potential suitability of a chopped nickel-coated carbon fibre (NiCCF) material to an impressed current, cathodic protection (CP) system, for an underground-buried steel structure. A primary role of a conductive NiCCF filler (Toho-Tenax^®-J MC HTA-12K A302 fibre) was to enhance distribution of a protective current, by significantly lowering the corrosion environment’s resistivity.Initially, the resistivity of sand-based soil (with humidity of ca. 20%) was optimized through addition of small amounts of chopped (15 ± 3 mm long) pieces of Toho-Tenax fibre. An operational efficiency for two laboratory CP setups (in the presence and absence of NiCCF soil modifier) was then monitored, over a period of 30 days. Each cathodic protection setup consisted of a protected structure (simulated by a steel rebar:  = 10 mm and length 0.5 m) and a DSA (Ti/MMO: _a = 95 mm) anode. Obtained results demonstrated a continuous increase of the soil resistivity parameter during a preliminary, 30-day cathodic polarization cycle, for the NiCCF-modified CP setup.     

Effect of surface condition on the initial corrosion of galvanized reinforcing steel embedded in concrete

The present work was aimed at determining the effect of coating surface condition on the initial corrosion of hot-dip galvanized reinforcing steel bar (HDG rebar) in ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete. During zinc corrosion in OPC concrete, calcium hydroxyzincate (CHZ) formed on untreated HDG steel provided sufficient protection against corrosion. Therefore, it is concluded that treating HDG rebar with dilute chromic acid is unnecessary as a method of passivating zinc. A layer of zinc oxide and zinc carbonate formed, through weathering, on HDG bars increased the initial corrosion rate and passivation time compared with the non-weathered rebar exposed to concrete. HDG steel with an alloyed coating, i.e. containing only of Fe-Zn intermetallic phases, required a longer time to passivate than those with a pure zinc surface layer. The lower zinc content of the surface limited the rate of CHZ formation; hence, delayed passivation. Regardless of the surface condition, the coating depth loss after two days of embedment in ordinary Portland cement concrete was insignificant.     

Test results regarding the corrosion protection of the reinforcement at the application of acrylate gels in concrete cracks

This paper deals with the possible corrosion risk for steel rebars in cracked reinforced concrete structures by using acrylate gels for grouting. In the course of this project, 19 customary acrylate gels were analysed. The results of the conducted test procedures revealed that none of the tested acrylate gels can provide an active corrosion protection for the steel rebars due to their low electrolytic resistivity and low pH values. Just when applied in very thin layers (e.g., fine cracks) it seems to be possible that alkaline components of the surrounding concrete can penetrate through the gel to form a passive layer on the embedded steel rebar.     

Modeling the cracking of cover concrete due to non-uniform corrosion of reinforcement

In situations when external chloride penetration is the cause of depassivation, the corrosion process may start from the outer region of a rebar, which might expand non-uniformly. Therefore, the main objective of the present work is to explore the effect of non-uniform corrosion on cracking behavior of cover concrete. The influences of concrete heterogeneities and the porous layer generated at the rebar/concrete interface on the failure patterns and the corrosion level of cover concrete are considered. The random aggregate structures of concrete are built, and the concrete is regarded as a composite composed of three phases, i.e. the aggregate, mortar matrix, and the interfacial transition zones (ITZs). The plasticity damaged model is employed to describe the mechanical properties of the mortar matrix and the ITZs, and it is assumed that the aggregate is elastic. Non-uniform radial displacement with a half ellipse shape is adopted to describe the expansion distribution of the corrosion products. The failure pattern and the corrosion pressure of cover concrete, and the critical corrosion level when the cover concrete cracks due to non-uniform corrosion expansion are studied based on the meso-scale numerical method. The comparison of the simulation results with the available test results on the failure pattern of cover concrete shows fairly good agreement. Moreover, the influence of meso-structural heterogeneities is explored, and the cracking behavior obtained under non-uniform and uniform expansion conditions are compared. Finally, the influences of cover thickness, rebar diameter and the location of rebar (namely side-located rebar and corner-located rebar), on the failure pattern and the corrosion level are examined.     

Determination of corrosion rate of reinforcement with a modulated guard ring electrode; analysis of errors due to lateral current distribution

The main source of errors in measuring the corrosion rate of rebars on site is a non-uniform current distribution between the small counter electrode (CE) on the concrete surface and the large rebar network. Guard ring electrodes (GEs) are used in an attempt to confine the excitation current within a defined area. In order to better understand the functioning of modulated guard ring electrode and to assess its effectiveness in eliminating errors due to lateral spread of current signal from the small CE, measurements of the polarisation resistance performed on a concrete beam have been numerically simulated. Effect of parameters such as rebar corrosion activity, concrete resistivity, concrete cover depth and size of the corroding area on errors in the estimation of polarisation resistance of a single rebar has been examined. The results indicate that modulated GE arrangement fails to confine the lateral spread of the CE current within a constant area. Using the constant diameter of confinement for the calculation of corrosion rate may lead to serious errors when test conditions change. When high corrosion activity of rebar and/or local corrosion occur, the use of the modulated GE confinement may lead to significant underestimation of the corrosion rate.     

沙特波斯湾沿海混凝土结构阴极保护电流密度研究

钢筋的腐蚀对钢筋混凝土结构的使用寿命影响极大,外加电流阴极保护系统能较好地控制钢筋锈蚀,尤其适用于沿海地区受氯盐侵蚀所引起的钢筋腐蚀,本工作重点介绍了在沙特波斯湾沿海一座混凝土结构中所采用的外加电流阴极保护情况,以位于取水口和排水口的阴极保护分区为研究对象,在工场现场对保护电流进行了研究,并对相关的技术参数进行了分析。结果显示,在中东严酷海洋腐蚀环境中的钢筋混凝土结构,外加电流阴极保护系统给混凝土结构提供相对于钢筋表面电流密度大小为5mA/m2的保护最为合适。     

The influence of cracks on chloride-induced corrosion of steel in ordinary Portland cement and high performance concretes subjected to different loading conditions

Many reinforced concrete structures are subjected to variable loads, but little information is available on the effect of such loading, and the accompanying opening and closing of cracks, on the initiation and propagation of chloride-induced rebar corrosion. The purpose of this paper is to provide that information for reinforced ordinary Portland cement concrete and high performance concrete exposed to static or cyclic three-point bending and exposed to salt solution.It was observed that: (i) corrosion occurred only at intersections of the rebar with cracks in the concrete; (ii) high performance concrete was more protective than ordinary Portland cement concrete and (iii) the type of loading had less impact on corrosion than the type of concrete and exposure conditions.     

Considerations on reproducibility of potential and corrosion rate measurements in reinforced concrete

This communication analyses information supplied by the electrochemical parameters related to rebar corrosion in reinforced concrete structures (RCS). Corrosion potential and corrosion current density are determined for different sets of conditions. Tests are performed to gather data on conflictive aspects of the two electrochemical parameters, with regard to evaluating the results of RCS inspections. Consideration is made of the limitations of potential measurements if not accompanied by complementary indications such as concrete resistivity, rebar surface area involved in the measurements, or the instrumentally determined corrosion current. The capacity of galvanostatic pulses applied directly on large RCS to offer a reliable guide to corrosion rate of steel reinforcements is discussed.     

Protection of the opposite reinforcement layer of RC‐structures by CP – results of numerical simulations

If cathodic protection (CP) is applied to reinforced concrete structures the anode is usually attached at the concrete surface closest to the corroding reinforcement in order to minimise voltage and protection current that is required. In specific circumstances an anode installation at the concrete surface next to the corroding reinforcement is not practicable, i.e. due to difficult access. In such cases it would be helpful to know whether it is possible to protect the reinforcement by an anode being installed at the opposite surface of the structural element. The question is: does the second reinforcement layer obtain sufficient current to be effectively protected? Since a general answer to this question is not possible because the distribution of protection current depends on several parameters like the geometry and amount of the reinforcement, concrete resistivity, the polarisation behaviour and geometry of corroding and passive zones, a 3 D‐FEM model of the current and potential distribution was developed and its accuracy was verified by laboratory results. This paper presents the model itself as well as the results of parameter studies carried out to show the impact of the reinforcement distribution, the concrete resistivity and the polarisation behaviour of the reinforcement on the current distribution within the reinforcement.     

Application of harmonic analysis in measuring the corrosion rate of rebar in concrete

The corrosion rate (CR) of rebar embedded in cement mortar, concrete and cement extract is determined using harmonic analysis technique (HA). Simultaneously using other electrochemical techniques such as impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and Tafel extrapolation (TET), the CR was determined and compared with the weight loss method. CR obtained from HA is comparable to that of EIS provided that the Stern–Geary constant (B value) obtained from HA is used in the calculation. In concrete, comparable corrosion rates are obtained between TET and HA only under active condition of the rebar whereas under passive state, the corrosion current (i_corr) by TET is 10 times lower than that of HA. A good agreement is obtained between the HA and weight loss method. The outcome of the result suggests that HA is capable of providing a higher degree of accuracy than that of EIS and TET in the determination of i_corr in the medium like rebar in concrete having very low rate of corrosion.     

Cathodic protection of new and old reinforced concrete structures

Current and potential distributions measured on concrete slabs and simulated by computer modelling are discussed in relation with the application of cathodic protection to new reinforced structures as a corrosion preventive method. The results show high penetration of cathodic protection over the depth of uncontaminated concrete, so that even a rebar relatively distant from the anode can be polarized, whereas the penetration is limited to the rebars near to the anode in chloride contaminated slabs with corroding rebars. The great throwing power and the wide range of protection potentials for uncorroding concrete structure enable safe application of the cathodic protection even to new prestressed structures.     

Effect of cathodic protection on macrocell currents: A viable method to monitor and control the efficiency of CP?

Corrosion protection of steel reinforcement in concrete structures by cathodic protection (CP) is a cost effective, reliable, and widely accepted method to stop and prevent the corrosion of the steel reinforcement. The efficiency of CP is usually monitored by the “24 h, 100 mV depolarization criterion,” a purely empirical criterion whose implementation is cost and labor intensive and that does not allow online control of CP. Within an extended research project on CP applied to concrete members of a highway bridge exposed to penetrating moisture, three sets of macrocells (MC), each composed of five MC sensors, were installed in conjunction with concrete resistance sensors and silver/silver chloride reference cells. Chloride profiles were determined from the cored or drilled powder originating from the installation of sensors and from drilling cores. Corrosion currents, steel potentials, and concrete resistance were monitored over a period of 1 year before, after installing the CP systems (which remained switched off for half a year for evaluating the effect of the conductive coating), and after start-up of the CP systems. The CP systems applied consist of a moisture resistant conductive coating. As expected CP has a pronounced effect on local MC currents: Anodic MC currents were reduced or changed into cathodic currents, whereas cathodic currents were only weakly influenced. By adjusting the applied protection current all anodic MC currents may be changed into cathodic MC currents. Results indicate that the 100 mV depolarization criterion is a conservative criterion in atmospherically exposed concrete; it is not reliable in strongly wetted concrete. There was no consistent correlation between the CP induced changes in the local MC currents and 24 h depolarization values indicating that large potential shifts induced by CP do not necessarily imply overprotection. Results show that monitoring MC currents before, during, and after CP operation allows to demonstrate in a transparent way the effect of CP on the corrosion of the steel reinforcement. Online monitoring of MC currents is proposed as a viable and comprehensible method to monitor and control the efficiency of CP.     

环氧涂层钢筋及其应用

钢筋的腐蚀，尤其当有氯离子存在时，是混凝土结构腐蚀破坏的主要原因。在防止钢筋腐蚀的各种措施中，采用涂层既简便又有效。熔融结合环氧粉末涂层的综合防护性能优良，已经大量应用于钢质管道和钢管桩，也很适合于钢筋的保护。钢筋表面涂装环氧涂层可用静电喷涂方法，工艺基本成熟。环氧涂层钢筋的研究开发在美国始于20世纪的70年代，主要应用于撒布化冰盐的路桥和各类海工结构。我国在1997年就制订了环氧树脂涂层钢筋的行业标准。目前，国内已能生产环氧涂层钢筋，并开始实际应用。随着我国国民经济的发展，越来越多的工程要求使用环氧涂层钢筋，市场前景肯定十分广阔。     

用阴极保护防止混凝土结构的钢筋腐蚀

分析了钢筋混凝土结构的腐蚀机理及腐蚀特点，指出在众多防止钢筋腐蚀的具体方法中，阴极保护是一种解决根本的方法。重点介绍了阴极保护的具体做法，一种是以钛基阳极作为辅助阳极的外加电流法，另一种是采用锌板阳极的牺牲阳极法。     

钢筋混凝土构筑物电化学保护的新进展

综述了钢筋混凝土构筑物电化学保护的发展和现状,包括牺牲阳极系统和外加电流系统。内容涉及对不同类型、不同龄期构筑物的保护标准、保护参数选择、保护效果的评价以及检测、监测等诸方面。认为有必要加强电化学驱氯、电化学再碱化等新技术的研究;根据构筑物的不同使用环境,采用多种有效的、综合的保护措施。     

混凝土中钢筋的腐蚀与防护

钢筋腐蚀引起混凝土结构的破坏,钢筋在混凝土中腐蚀的基本历程,混凝土中钢筋腐蚀的研究方法和控制方法,作者研究成果,未来的研究方向。