Effect of liquid oilfield-related media on slow crack growth behavior in polyethylene pipe grade materials

Polyethylene, as non-polar material, shows a high affinity especially to liquid non-polar aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, and liquid hydrocarbons (LHC) to a certain extent migrate into the bulk material by sorption, leading to material plasticization (i.e., drop in modulus and yield stress). This paper aims to study the crack growth mechanism and failure behavior of commercial pipe grade materials when exposed to deionized water or LHC (90/10 wt% i-octane/toluene) under the simultaneous application of cyclic loads. The results of the cyclic crack growth experiments with three PE 100 pipe grades, using cracked round bar (CRB) specimens and performed at two different temperatures (35 °C and 60 °C), are compared in terms of the specimen lifetimes, and the micro-modes and kinetics of failure by referring to concepts of fracture mechanics. Most importantly, while crack advance is preceded by crack-tip crazing in water, shear yielding takes place at crack-tips in the LHC environment.     

Mismatch effect in creep properties on creep crack growth behavior in welded joints

The finite element method based on ductility exhaustion model was used to systematically investigate the mismatch effect in creep properties on creep crack growth (CCG) behavior in welded joints. The crack-tip damage, stress states, CCG paths, CCG rate and rupture life were calculated for different configurations of creep properties between weldment constituents under the same load level, and the creep life assessment and design for welded joints were discussed. The results show that when the zone containing the crack is softer than at least one of the other two surrounding materials or both, the creep crack propagates straight along the initial crack plane. Otherwise, it will form a second crack in the soft material near interface. These simulation results were confirmed by the experimental observations in the literature, and the mechanism was analyzed. The harder surrounding materials can lead to higher CCG rate and shorter rupture life due to the higher constraint given from them. The early initiation and propagation of the second cracks increase CCG rate and reduce rupture life, and the incubation time of the second cracks in soft materials near interfaces should be accurately determined in the creep life assessment and design for the welded joints. A proper mismatch design with harder material containing crack and softer surrounding material can improve CCG properties of welded joints (decreasing CCG rate and prolong rupture life).     

Characterization of the fatigue crack behavior of pipe grade polyethylene using circular notched specimens

Several standard tests have been widely used for evaluating the pipe grade polyethylene with respect to toughness and lifetime. However, some of these tests turn to be not adequate for new generation of high performance pipe grade polyethylene: the testing takes extremely long time, which makes it impractical. Recently, it has been proposed to use the circular notched specimen (CNS) for studying the crack growth resistance of pipe grade polyethylene. In CNS the stress intensity factor (SIF) increases with crack size much faster than in commonly used test specimens like compact tension (CT) specimen for instance. Thus, CNS may be a good candidate for an accelerated testing as long as it allows reproducing the mechanisms of slow crack growth (SCG) in field conditions. The objectives of the present studies are twofold: (1) to compare pipe grade polyethylene materials with respect to fracture resistance using CNS in order to complete the program in a relatively short time; and (2) to evaluate the applicability of CNS for studies of slow crack growth kinetics. Fatigue crack growth resistance of four PE resins is evaluated in this work. The fracture surfaces after CNS failure, are analyzed by means of optical and scanning electron microscopy (OM and SEM) in order to determine the mechanism of SCG. The effect of load level, stress ratio (R) and notch depth is also studied using CNS. In addition, some technical issues associated with CNS testing are discussed.     

High temperature crack initiation and defect assessment of P22 steel weldments using time dependent failure assessment method

High temperature deformation and crack resistance of low alloy ferritic grade P22 steel weldments applied in power plants are reported. The creep crack initiation (CCI) and creep crack growth (CCG) data were determined using compact type (C(T)) and C-Shape (CS(T)) fracture mechanics specimens at 550 °C. The deformation and crack growth behaviour of similar weldment zones and significance of CCI and CCG in defect assessment of components were addressed. The weldments with industrially relevant properties were produced in butt welded pipe joint from which test specimens are sampled. The studied material covers a spectrum of microstructures and ductility over the weldment zones to give representative for a welded component. The emphasis is placed on the measurement and particularly analysis of crack initiation for failure assessment in P22 steel weldments. The particular importance of construction of isochronous curves for time dependent failure assessment diagram (TDFAD) method is reported. It is aimed to contribute to establishing guidelines for acceptable methodologies for testing, analysis and assessment of welded components using TDFAD for high temperature service.     

A viscoelastic fracture mechanics assessment of slow crack growth in polyethylene gas distribution pipe materials

A substantial amount of the plastic gas distribution pipe currently in service, as well as that anticipated for future use, is polyethylene (PE). While this material has an excellent record, due to a variety of abnormal loadings that can arise in long time service, some slow crack growth (SCG) related field failures have occurred. Accelerated test procedures and analysis methodologies to predict accurately the long term performance of PE gas pipes are therefore required. One such procedure is the three-point bend test conducted on a pre-cracked pipe segment that is known as the SCG test. The research reported here examines the validity of this test through the application of advanced fracture mechanics principles. Specifically, considering the viscoelastic behavior of PE materials and using the region of dominance concept, the delimitation of a linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) interpretation of the SCG test was developed. Excluding the time spent in crack initiation, the long-term performance of the category of materials for which the assumptions of LEFM are valid can therefore be effectively predicted from SCG test results. Through illustrative examples, this paper demonstrates the veracity of the approach by comparing time to failure predictions for abnormal service loadings with actual gas distribution service experiences.     

纤维增强PE材料增韧效果的研究

以聚乙烯(PE)材料为基体,应用玻璃纤维随机或定向分布,增加材料的强度、刚度和断裂韧性,是发展高压大口径复合材料天然气管道的需要。本文基于PFRAC程序的动态断裂分析能力[1],增加了各向异性材料的本构条件,发展了对纤维增强复合材料未开裂和开裂管道的计算功能。由力学性能的试验结果,提供了材料的本构关系,对未开裂和开裂的管道进行了计算分析。结果表明,PE管道经纤维增强之后,与纯PE材料的管道相比,其环向位移下降到53%(纤维随机分布)~5%(纤维沿管道轴向80度分布);裂纹驱动力相应下降到50%~17%,充分反映了纤维对PE材料的增强和增韧效果。     

Estimation of high‐temperature fracture parameters for small punch specimen with a surface crack

An outline of a newly proposed methodology for evaluating creep crack growth (CCG) parameters using cracked small‐punch (SP) specimens is explained. Three‐dimensional finite element analyses were performed to calculate the stress intensity factor along the crack front for a surface crack formed at the centre of a SP specimen. Effects of crack ratio, (a/t); crack aspect ratio, (a/c); and thickness of the specimen, (t), on the fracture parameters were studied. It was observed that the minimum variation of K‐value along the crack front can be achieved when a/c was 0.50 except the location very near the intersection of the crack and free surface. This condition is similar to the case of constant K‐values along the crack front of the conventional compact tension specimen. Thus, it can be argued that the SP specimen with a surface crack is a suitable specimen geometry for CCG testing. The proposed CCG test method was found to be practically applicable for the crack geometry of 0.10 to 0.30 of a/t with constant aspect ratio of 0.50. An estimation of the K and C_t‐parameter under the small scale creep condition was derived. Future work for further development of the suggested CCG testing is discussed.     

A new method for assessing high-temperature crack growth

Experimental creep crack growth (CCG) test data are obtained by following standards that characterize CCG rates using the C* parameter. Such data are then used in high‐temperature failure assessment procedures. An alternative approach to defect assessment at high‐temperature failure is an extension of the R6 failure assessment diagram (FAD). At high temperature, creep toughness, K^c_mat, can be estimated from CCG tests and replaces low‐temperature toughness in R6. This approach has the advantage that it is not necessary to establish a creep fracture regime, such as small‐scale, primary or widespread creep. Also, a new strain‐based FAD has been developed, potentially allowing variations of stress and temperature to be accommodated. In this paper, the results of a series of crack growth tests performed on ex‐service 316H stainless steel at 550 °C are examined in the light of the limitations imposed by ASTM for CCG testing. The results are then explored in terms of toughness and presented in FADs.     

Sensitivity analysis of creep crack growth prediction using the statistical distribution of uniaxial data

Due to the variables and unknowns in both material properties and predictive models in creep crack growth (CCG) rates, it is difficult to predict failure of a component precisely. A failure strain constraint based transient and steady state CCG model (called NSW) modified using probabilistic techniques, has been employed to predict CCG using uniaxial data as basic material property. In this paper the influence of scatter in the creep uniaxial properties, the parameter C* and creep crack initiation and growth rate have been examined using probabilistic methods. Using uniaxial and CCG properties of C‐Mn steel at 360 °C, a method is developed which takes into account the scatter of the data and its sensitivity to the correlating parameters employed. It is shown that for an improved prediction method in components containing cracks the NSW crack growth model employed would benefit from a probabilistic analysis. This should be performed by considering the experimental scatter in failure strain, the creep stress index and in estimating the C* parameter.     

Determination of material fracture toughness by a computational/experimental approach for rapid crack propagation in PE pipe

Based on an investigation of the Small Scale Steady State (S4) test, an integrated computational/ experimental approach has been developed in order to assess the fracture behaviour of polyethylene (PE) gas distribution pipe material during rapid crack propagation (RCP). This paper describes the use of the results obtained from the S4 test and program modified from PFRAC (Pipeline Fracture Analysis Code) to evaluate the fracture toughness of the material, G _d, which could not be directly obtained from the test, and to predict critical pressure, p _c, for RCP in a full scale PE pipe. The contact algorithms are developed to consider the opening pipe wall impact against a series of containment rings and the capabilities of PFRAC are also extended. Since G _d is evaluated, the investigations are made on it to the effect of temperature and wall thickness. In addition, procedures to evaluate the critical pressure for the S4 test pipe are also discussed.     

Creep crack growth in power plant materials

Economic considerations have made it desirable to extend the 30 to 40 year operating life of power plants by another 10 to 20 years. Crack growth at elevated temperatures is an important consideration in estimating the remaining life, determining operating conditions and deciding inspection criteria and intervals for power plant materials. This paper presents an overview of high-temperature crack growth phenomenon in such materials. The focus is on various techniques used for characterizing creep crack growth (CCG) and creep-fatigue crack growth (CFCG) in high-temperature materials. The collection of data, their analysis and the interpretation of results is discussed in detail, especially for CFCG laboratory testing. The discussion is primarily focussed on creep-ductile materials such as those used in power plant applications. Special considerations for elevated temperature crack growth in weldments are also presented. Finally, the application of these concepts to the life prediction of power plant components is also discussed.     

Creep crack growth simulations in 316H stainless steel

Virtual methods of predicting creep crack growth (CCG), using finite element analysis (FE), are implemented in a compact tension specimen, C(T). The material examined is an austenitic type 316H stainless steel at 550 °C, which exhibits power-law creep–ductile behaviour. A local damage-based approach is used to predict crack propagation and the CCG rate data are correlated with the C^∗ parameter. Two-dimensional elastic–plastic–creep analyses are performed under plane stress and plane strain conditions. Finite element CCG rate predictions are compared to experimental data and to the NSW and modified NSW (NSW–MOD) CCG models’ solutions, which are based on ductility exhaustion arguments. An alternative version of the NSW–MOD model is presented for direct comparison with the FE implementation. The FE predictions are found to be in agreement with the appropriate analytical solutions, and follow the trends of the experimental data at high C^∗ values. Accelerated cracking behaviour is observed experimentally at low C^∗ values, which is consistent with the standard plane strain NSW–MOD prediction. The FE model may be developed to predict this accelerated cracking at low C^∗ values so that the trends between CCG rates at high and low C^∗ values may be determined.     

Numerical investigation of creep crack growth in cross‐weld CT specimens. Part II: influence of specimen size

A numerical investigation of the influence of specimen size on creep crack growth in cross‐weld CT specimens with material properties of 2.25Cr1Mo at 550 °C is performed. A three‐dimensional large strain and large displacement finite element study is carried out, where the material properties and specimen size are varied under constant load for a total of eight different configurations. The load level is chosen such that the stress intensity factor becomes 20 MPa √m regardless of specimen size. The creep crack growth rate is calculated using a creep ductility‐based damage model, in which the creep strain rate ahead of the crack tip perpendicular to the crack plane is integrated taking the degree of constraint into account. Although the constraint ahead of the crack tip is higher for the larger specimens, the results show that the creep crack growth (CCG) rate is higher for the smaller specimens than for the larger ones. This is due to much higher creep strain rates ahead of the crack tip for the smaller specimens. If, on the other hand, the CCG rate is evaluated under a constant C * condition, the creep crack growth rate is found to be higher for the larger specimens, except when the crack is located in a HAZ embedded in a material with a lower minimum creep strain rate; then, the creep crack growth rate is predicted to be higher for the smaller specimen. In view of these results, it is obvious that the size effect needs to be considered in assessments of defected welded components using results from CCG testing of cross‐weld CT specimens.     

Effect of stress dependent creep ductility on creep crack growth behaviour of steels for wide range of C*

Abstract

In this work, the effect of stress dependent creep ductility on the creep crack growth (CCG) behaviour of steels has been investigated by finite element simulations based on ductility exhaustion damage model. The relationship between the transition region of creep ductility and the transition behaviour of CCG rate on da/dt-C* curves has been examined and the CCG life assessments of components and CCG resistance of materials for a wide range of C* were discussed. The results show that with increasing the transition region size of creep ductility, the transition C* region size on da/dt-C* curves increases. With moving transition region position of creep ductility to high stress region (increasing transition stress levels), the transition C* region on the da/dt-C* curves also moves to high C* region. Decreasing transition stress levels and transition region sizes of creep ductility and increasing the lower shelf and upper shelf creep ductility values can improve the CCG resistance of materials. If the extrapolation CCG rate data from the high C* region or from the transition C* region are used in life assessments of the components at low C* region, the non-conservative or excessive conservative results may be produced. Therefore, the CCG rate data should be obtained for a wide range of C* by long term laboratory tests or numerical predictions using the stress dependent creep ductility and model.     

Numerical investigation of creep crack growth in cross-weld CT specimens. Part I: influence of mismatch in creep deformation properties and notch tip location

Creep crack growth (CCG) in cross-weld CT specimens is investigated using two-dimensional finite element simulations. A creep ductility-based damage model describes the accumulation of creep damage ahead of the crack tip where a constraint parameter and the creep strain rate perpendicular to the crack plane are used as characterizing parameters.
The numerical results reveal that, not only the material properties of the region in which the crack is propagating, but also the deformation properties of the surrounding material influence the CCG behaviour. For the specimen configurations investigated, the location of the starter notch in the HAZ of the cross-weld CT specimen has, however, a minor influence on the CCG rate and the value of C *. This applies as long as the crack is propagating within a sufficiently narrow region that has material properties which can be regarded as homogeneous.     

Effects of side‐groove depth on creep crack‐tip constraint and creep crack growth rate in C(T) specimens

The effects of side‐groove depth on creep crack‐tip constraint and creep crack growth (CCG) rate in C(T) specimens have been quantitatively studied. The results indicate that with increasing side‐groove depth, the constraint level and CCG rate increase and constraint distribution along crack front (specimen thickness) becomes more uniform. The constraint and CCG rate of thinner specimen are more sensitive to side‐groove depth. Two new creep constraint parameters (namely R^* and A_c) both can quantify constraint levels of the specimens with and without side‐grooves, and the quantitative correlations of CCG rate with constraint have been established. The mechanism of the side‐groove depth effect on the CCG rate has also been analyzed.     

PE软管封口技术研究进展

目的对目前PE薄片管材的主流热封方法进行归纳总结,为后续的研究提供依据。方法综述PE薄片作为软管热封的优缺点,分析PE薄片管材的热封和其他因素的影响,探讨目前比较先进的灌装封尾机构的现状。结果 PE大多用于膏体的灌装上,其密封性能除了与材料有关外,也与其密封条件有很大关系,其密封方法一般采用热封方式。PE薄片管材热封后的性能与热封的三个要素(热封时间、温度和压力)有关,其中最重要的是热封温度。结论目前企业用得最多的热封方法是内加热,PE薄片管材采用水平封尾更加稳定。热封尾工艺要求达到一定的机械强度和足够的密封性。     

Round robin on creep fatigue crack growth testing for verification of ASTM standard 2760-10

Abstract

This paper presents early results from an ongoing round robin study to verify the newly developed ASTM standard E-2760-10 on creep fatigue crack growth testing. This round robin is an international effort with 18 participants from 11 countries from Asia, North America and Europe. All participants are testing compact type, C(T) specimens according to the procedure described in the standard. The test material is P91 taken from a section of retired steam pipe that was heat treated to rejuvenate the microstructure. All background materials data such as tensile, creep deformation and creep fatigue crack formation data are already available on the test material. Creep fatigue crack growth testing was conducted as part of a pilot program at 625°C using C(T) specimens under constant load amplitude conditions at two load levels. The tests are conducted at hold times of 0, 60 and 600 s. Creep fatigue crack growth rates are analysed using the two methods included as part of the test standard. The data from the various participants will be assessed to determine the expected levels of precision and bias in creep fatigue crack growth data obtained using the ASTM standard. Modifications to the current version of the standard will be proposed and balloted as needed from the round robin results.     

In-plane and out-of-plane constraint effects on creep crack growth rate in Cr–Mo–V steel for wide range of C*

Abstract

In this work, the stress dependent creep ductility and strain rate model have been implemented in a ductility exhaustion based damage model and the creep crack growth (CCG) rates of a Cr–Mo–V steel in compact tension (C(T)) and middle tension (M(T)) specimens with different thicknesses and crack depths have been simulated over a wide range of C*. The effects of in-plane and out-of-plane constraints on CCG rates are examined. The results show that the in-plane and out-of-plane constraint effects on CCG rate are more pronounced for the high constraint specimen geometry (C(T)), while such effects are less significant for low constraint specimen geometry (M(T)). The constraint effects on CCG rates mainly occur in low and transition C* regions and the CCG rate increases with increasing in-plane and out-of-plane constraints. There exists interaction between in-plane and out-of-plane constraint in terms of their effects on CCG rate. The higher in-plane constraint strengthens the out-of-plane constraint effect on CCG rate and higher out-of-plane constraint also strengthens the in-plane constraint effect on CCG rate. The constraint effects on creep crack growth behaviour for a wide range of C* mainly arise from the interaction of crack-tip stress states and stress dependent creep ductility of the steel in different C* levels.     

CREEP CRACK GROWTH MICROMECHANISMS AT 405°C IN COLD BENT TUBES OF A C-Mn-Mo STEEL

Abstract— Creep Crack Growth (CCG) tests were performed at 405°C on specimens cut out of the cold bent extrados of five tubes of a C-Mn-Mo steel. Intergranular fracture and grain boundary cavitation was less in the C-Mn-Mo than in the C-Mn steels, in accordance with better CCG resistance of the former material. The dimensions and hardness variation across the crack tip process zone were measured by microhardness profiles performed on metallographic sections of the broken samples. TEM analysis of the dislocation patterns close to the fracture surface confirmed the presence of temperature- and stress-induced plasticity phenomena. A significant enrichment of N at grain boundaries (GB) inside the process zone was detected by Auger spectroscopy; N not only inhibits dislocation motion and stress field relaxation at the crack tip but also causes a decrease in GB cohesion ahead of the crack tip. These results help in understanding the micromechanisms which reduce the creep ductility of C-Mn-Mo and C-Mn cold bent tubes and the role of chemical composition in improving CCG resistance.