Radar estimates of aboveground biomass in boreal forests ofinterior Alaska

Airborne SAR data gathered by the NASA/JPL three-frequency, polarimetric, radar system in winter, spring, and summer over the Bonanza Creek Experimental Forest, near Fairbanks, AK, are compared to estimates of whole-tree aboveground dry biomass from 21 forest stands and two clear-cuts. While C-band radar backscatter shows little sensitivity to biomass, L- and P-band radar backscatter increase by more than 6 dB when biomass increases from 5 to 200 tons/ha. Using second-order polynomial regressions, biomass values are predicted from the radar at L- and P-band and compared to actual biomass values. At P-band HV-polarization, the error in predicted biomass is about 30% of the actual biomass. When HV-, HH-, and VV-polarization are used together in the regression, the error in predicted biomass is about 20%. Errors obtained using L-band data are a few percents larger. These errors are caused by uncertainties in actual stand biomass estimates, significant inner-stand spatial variations in biomass, unusual conditions of forest stands following natural disturbances, along with interactions of the radar signals with a complex three-dimensional structure of the canopy. Multiple incidence angle data reveal that the incidence angle &thetas; _i of the radar illumination is also a factor influencing the retrieval of biomass, even at HV-polarization, when &thetas;_i>50° or &thetas;_i<25°. Finally, the radar response of the forest-and thereby the regression curves for biomass retrieval-are dependent on the seasonal and environmental conditions     

Measuring the propagation properties of a forest canopy using apolarimetric scatterometer

A truck-mounted 1.6-GHz polarimetric scatterometer was used from a 19-m high platform to measure the backscattering from a dense canopy of pine trees at an incidence angle of 40°. Two sets of measurements were made at each of many spatial locations, one set with and the other without a trihedral corner reflector present on the ground surface underneath the canopy. From the two sets of polarimetric measurements, it was possible to determine the mean values and the statistical distributions of the canopy attenuation factors for horizontal and vertical polarizations. The mean values of the one-way attenuation factors were found to be 9.31 dB for horizontal polarization and 9.16 dB for vertical polarization. The precision associated with the values of the canopy loss factor measured using the polarimetric technique is estimated to be on the order of ±0.3 dB     

Fully polarimetric bistatic radar scattering behavior of forestedhills

The bistatic radar scattering measurements of forested hills were performed at grazing incidence and at azimuth scattering angles from 28° to 66° from the forward scatter plane. Using pulse-to-pulse switching between orthogonal transmitted polarizations, the radar simultaneously measures two orthogonally polarized components of the scattered wave to obtain full polarimetric information about the scattering process. These are the first fully polarimetric terrain clutter measurements to be conducted at large bistatic angles. The complete Stokes matrix, computed by averaging successive realizations of the polarization scattering matrix, is used to examine the polarization sensitivity of the bistatic clutter. It is found that the polarization state of the EM wave scattered out of the plane of incidence strongly depends on the polarization orientation of the incident electric field. Unlike the monostatic case, these two incident wave polarization states are found to produce substantially different scattered wave behavior when trees are viewed at large bistatic angles. Scattered fields resulting from vertically oriented incident fields are found to be highly polarized and to produce bistatic clutter power levels that are strongly dependent on the polarization of the receiving antenna. In contrast, horizontally oriented incident fields are found to produce weakly polarized scattered waves with bistatic clutter power levels that are insensitive to the polarization of the receiving antenna     

An improved model of surface BRDF-atmospheric coupled radiation

Based on the 6S code, an improved model of the surface BRDF-atmospheric coupled radiation is proposed, in which the key point is an upward flux correction. As shown in comparative numerical simulations, this model generally has a better accuracy than some exiting models. In the condition of the solar zenith angle &thetas;_s⩽75° and the viewing angle &thetas;_v ⩽60°, the error by the present model is usually smaller than 2.5%     

24 GHz active retrodirective antenna array

A 24 GHz active Van Atta planar antenna array proposed for increasing the vehicle radar echo in a vehicle collision avoidance system is designed and demonstrated. The antenna array contains two parallel linear sub-arrays. Each sub-array is composed of four receiving microstrip antennas, four transmitting microstrip antennas and four transistor amplifiers. At the angles of -40°<&thetas;<40°, except those very close to the specular direction (&thetas;=0°), the measured backscattering field levels of the fabricated array have variations <3 dB and are at least 10 dB higher than those of a metal plate of the same size     

点目标无源极化校准研究进展

极化校准是雷达目标极化散射特性正确获取的前提和基础。针对极化雷达系统,介绍了极化校准的概念及分类,概括了极化校准技术的发展史,对国内外研究机构在该领域主要的研究成果进行了归纳;分析了后向极化散射矩阵测量的误差模型,归纳了几种典型的点目标极化校准算法,分别介绍了各种极化校准算法所需的定标体和限制条件,列出各种典型算法的优缺点,通过仿真实验对比分析了几种典型点目标极化校准算法分别在低、中、高极化隔离度时极化校准的性能;指出了点目标极化校准技术今后的研究方向。点目标无源校准技术可以广泛应用于现有地基极化雷达装备和极化合成孔径雷达等的校准,对点目标无源校准技术的研究具有重要的理论和实际应用价值。     

Polarimetric calibration of the SIR-C C-band channel using activeradar calibrators and polarization selective dihedrals

A polarimetric calibration experiment of Shuttle Imaging Radar C (SIR-C) is carried out using several different calibration targets. These are C-band polarimetric active radar calibrators (PARCs), polarization selective dihedrals (PSDs), 22.5° rotated dihedrals, and a trihedral. A novel polarimetric calibration algorithm is proposed that combines existing algorithms and uses one PARC and two PSDs. An error evaluation example is shown to estimate the typical hardware error value of the calibration targets allowable for a given calibration error. The novel algorithm gives polarimetric calibration results comparable to those obtained using the existing algorithm for three PARCs. Since PSDs work at frequencies lower than design frequency, and hence can be commonly used at multiple frequency bands, the simple addition of just one more frequency band PARC allows polarimetric calibration of a dual-frequency polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) by means of the proposed algorithm     

Multipath scattering in ultrawide-band radar sea spikes

This paper presents sea scatter data collected with an ultrawide-band (UWB) polarimetric radar system that indicates that multipath scattering plays an important role in the generation of sea spikes. The radar system used in this study produces short pulses with a bandwidth of approximately 3 GHz centered at 9 GHz for a range resolution of approximately 4 cm. Pulse-to-pulse switching allows collection of the microwave echoes produced by all four combinations of linear transmit and receive polarizations [vertical-transmit vertical-receive (VV), horizontal-transmit horizontal-receive (HH), horizontal-transmit vertical receive (HV), and vertical-transmit horizontal-receive (VH)] each of which is collected by a sampling oscilloscope utilizing equivalent time sampling. In June 1996, upwind sea scatter data at grazing angles of 10°, 20°, and 30° were collected while the system was deployed on a research pier on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. An analysis of the strongest echoes (sea spikes) from this data set is presented and discussed. First, the cumulative distribution functions are presented. Second, an increase of approximately 5 dB is shown to occur in the polarization ratio (HH/VV) of the strongest echoes as the grazing angle decreases from 30° to 10°. Third, differences in the spatial and spectral characteristics of the VV and HH spikes are described. Through comparisons with laboratory results and a simple scattering model, these observations are explained by the presence of a multibounce scattering mechanism. The use of the model to extract wave height from the sea-spike frequency response is also explored     

Second harmonic generation and sum frequency mixing of dualwavelength Nd:YAlO3 laser in flux grown KTiOPO4crystal

On the basis of accurately measured refractive indexes, the authors have obtained the Sellmeier's equations for flux grown KTiOPO ₄ (KTP) crystal and used them to calculate the phase matched angles (&thetas;_m, φ_m) and effective nonlinear coefficients (d_eff) for type I and III second harmonic generation (SHG) and sum frequency mixing (SFM) of radiations at 1.0795 and 1.3414 μm. The optimum phase matching conditions for 1.0795 and 1.3414 μm SHG are that &thetas;_m=86.88 and 58.88°, respectively, in an XZ plane (φ=0) and for SMF of 1.0795 and 1.3414 μm in the same plane 76.02°. The corresponding d_eff values calculated from &thetas; _ms are 18.07×10^-9 and 17.42×10^-9 esu     

A new phase-shifterless beam-scanning technique using arrays ofcoupled oscillators

A method for electronic beam scanning in linear arrays of antenna-coupled oscillators is introduced which eliminates the need for phase shifters. It is shown that a constant phase progression can be established by slightly detuning the peripheral array elements, while maintaining mutual synchronization. This unusual nonlinear behavior is explained using coupled Van der Pol equations. A stability analysis provides theoretical limitations on the achievable interelement phase shift. When the phase of the coupling is zero, the theory predicts an interelement phase shift that can be varied continuously over the range -90°>Δ&thetas;<+90° and is independent of the number of oscillators in the array. An experimental four-element planar MESFET array was built, operating at 10 GHz with close to zero coupling phase, giving a measured phase progression that was continuously variable over the range -88°<Δ&thetas;<66°     

Quantitative comparison of classification capability: fullypolarimetric versus dual and single-polarization SAR

Addresses the land-use classification capabilities of fully polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) versus dual-polarization and single-polarization SAR for P-, L-, and C-band frequencies. A variety of polarization combinations are investigated for application to crop and tree age classification. Based on the complex Wishart distribution for the covariance matrix, maximum likelihood classifiers for all polarization combinations are used to assess quantitative classification accuracy. Thus, this allows optimally selecting the frequency and the combination of polarizations for various applications     

多角度极化SAR图像散射特征分解及SVM分类

在极化合成孔径雷达（synthetic aperture radar,SAR）图像理解和解译中,地物分类是重要的应用方向之一.为了研究多角度极化SAR图像的地物分类,文中基于极化统计特征差异性顺序,给出了多角度极化分解特征序列构建方法.首先,采用基于Wishart分布的统计量对非各向同性散射中心进行检测,并逐像素生成基于散射特征差异的新序列图像.然后,面向多种极化特征分解模型,提出通用的多角度极化特征一阶差分序列描述方法及编码方法,包括Yamaguchi四分量分解、Krogager分解以及H/A/Alpha分解,得到多维特征参数序列.最后,通过两种方法对比后最终选用支持向量机（support vector machine,SVM）方法对特征序列进行分类.通过机载P波段极化SAR开展360°观测试验,验证了该方法的有效性,并展示出在地物分类方面的应用潜力.     

基于支持向量机的极化SAR图像分类

极化合成孔径雷达可以同时得到地面场景在不同极化组合下的雷达图像,极大地丰富了获取的地物目标信息量。针对极化SAR图像特征提取和目标分类的困难,由4种基本极化组成样本向量,运用基于统计学习理论的支持向量机以及不同的核函数设计分类器,提出了一种新的极化SAR图像分类算法,并对实测极化SAR数据进行分类实验。结果表明,将支持向量机分类器应用于极化SAR图像分类中是可行和有效的,并且通过选择适当的惩罚系数,可以进一步提高分类效果。     

Research on circularly polarized conical-beam antennas

This antenna is intended for communication between a stationary satellite and mobile stations, and is designed to possess circularly polarized conical beams. It generates a beam in the desired direction, by means of changing the inclination angle of the linear-antenna elements, and the spacing between the antenna elements, without phase shifters. The antenna inclination angle (α), the antenna length (e), the distance between antenna elements (d), and the radius of the circular reflector (R), are adopted as parameters, and optimum values for the directivity of the research objective are obtained by calculation. Four elements of the antenna are fed by in-phase signals, the distances between elements are set to appropriate lengths, and by providing spatial phase differences of 90°, circularly polarized waves are obtained. The antenna elements are fundamentally monopole radiators. Ultimately, the antenna parameters were determined as follows: ℒ=0.64λ (120 mm), R=0.43λ (80 mm), α=45°, and d=0.48λ (90 mm). In the calculation, the frequency was set to 1.6 GHz. It was seen that the beam radiation intensity took the maximum value in the angular range of &thetas;=30° to 60°, and that the &thetas; and φ components of the electric field were approximately equal. In other words, the radiated waves were circularly polarized. An experiment for measuring the directivity of the circularly polarized conical-beam antenna was carried out by using four monopole antennas, and the effectiveness of the theoretical analysis was confirmed. Experiments were carried out for the impedance and directivity     

Experimental rain attenuation statistics estimated from radarmeasurements useful to design satellite communication systems for mobileterminals

Based on experimental data, we have reported a reliable method to scale the cumulative time T_F,T(A) that rain attenuation A (dB) is exceeded in a fixed satellite system to the time T_M,T(A) that it is exceeded in a satellite system for mobile terminals. Zigzag routes and ring-roads simulated city patterns; straight routes simulated freeways. In all cases, T_M,T(A) can be expressed as T_M,T(A)=ξT_F,T (A) with a probability scaling factor ξ independent of A. The simulations have been made at 19.77 GHz with satellite elevation angle &thetas; of 30.6°, 45°, 60°, 80°, and 90°. For the horizontal structure of rain, we have used a very large number of rain-rate maps of rain storms randomly observed in 1989-1992 by a meteorological radar placed at Spine d'Adda (northern Italy). The vehicle speed was modeled as a log-normal random variable. We found: (a) in zigzag routes, T_M,T(A)F,T(A), i.e., ξ<1, with results depending on vehicle speed modeling and starting conditions; (b) in a ring-road, there is no difference between fixed and mobile systems (ξ=1); and (c) in straight freeways, T_M,T(A)≪T_F,T (A)(ξ≪1); T_M,T(A) can change significantly in different straight lines and in opposite directions (anisotropy and asymmetry) for medium-large attenuation. When compared to zigzag routes or ring-roads, the performance in straight freeways is the most optimistic. For &thetas;>30.6° and for the same pattern, ξ is fairly independent of &thetas;. Since the radar rain maps are a reliable estimate of the horizontal structure of rain, the findings, which can be considered frequency-independent, stand as a very good prediction of the results obtainable by experiments     

Polarimetric characterization of debris and faults in the highwayenvironment at millimeter-wave frequencies

In this paper, measurements and models for the polarimetric backscatter response of various paint targets on roads and road surface faults are presented. Of particular interest are debris and faults that could lead to fatal accidents and damage of property. A desired safety feature for automotive radar sensors is the capability of detecting such debris and faults. The detectability of a point target is evaluated by comparing its RCS value with the RCS threshold value defined by the backscatter response of the road surface. Extensive backscatter measurements at W-band were conducted to obtain the backscatter response of typical debris and faults on asphalt surfaces at near grazing incidence angles (76°-86°). On the other hand, theoretical models, based on diffraction from impedance wedges and scattering from impedance cylinders, respectively, as well as physical optics approximation, were developed to predict the backscatter response of road surface faults and targets with planar facets on road surfaces. Experimental results indicate that detectability in all cases is a function of target size, its azimuthal angle with respect to radar boresight, and the polarization state of the system. The measured backscatter response is used to verify the validity of the theoretical models. Angular polarimetric backscatter measurements of targets defining roadside boundaries such as a concrete curb, a guardrail, and a pebble surface are also presented. The results of these measurements could be used to alert fatigued drivers should their vehicles be heading sideward     

雷达极化信息获取及极化信号处理技术研究综述

雷达极化信号处理技术作为雷达领域的热门研究方向之一,逐渐受到了国内外学者的重视并在诸多领域得到广泛应用,而极化信息获取则是极化信号处理的基础。该文对相关的几个主要方面的研究现状进行了综述,包括极化信息获取、极化分集与编码、极化抗干扰/杂波、目标的极化检测、分类与识别,最后总结了雷达极化技术面临的问题,并对其发展前景做出展望。      

Multibeam antennas with polarization and angle diversity

A 10-GHz discrete cylindrical lens array with multiple beams is designed and characterized as a receiving angle-diversity array for wireless communications in a multipath environment. The array also has dual-orthogonal polarization and therefore built-in polarization diversity. The array is designed for wide-angle scanning between -45° and 45° and measured scanning patterns are presented. The polarization isolation between the two channels is about 30 dB at boresite and about 10 dB for a 30° scan angle. The addition of the lens array at the very front end of a link shows significant reduction of multipath fading peak-to-null ratio     

空间目标光谱偏振特性

偏振特性及其变化反映了目标的状态信息。文中讨论了采用偏振探测的方法对空间目标探测的思路与可行性,介绍了空间目标偏振测量装置,给出了空间目标的光谱偏振观测结果,并测量了与实测目标相似的空间目标缩比模型的偏振特性,对实测结果与仿真实验结果进行比较分析,结果显示两者的偏振特性变化趋势符合的很好,验证了空间目标光谱偏振观测技术的有效性。研究表明,空间目标有其自身的偏振特性变化规律,偏振度由午夜时的5 ％增加到黎明前的23.8 %,其中太阳能电池板姿态对卫星的偏振特性影响尤为明显。说明了偏振观测是空间目标探测与识别的新方法。     

Radiation characteristics of a corrugated circular cylindricalwaveguide horn excited in the TE11 mode

The design and experimental studies on a corrugated circular cyclindrical waveguide antenna that is feed-excited in the TE₁₁ mode with suppressed far-out sidelobes are reported. To reduce the spillover in the region 90°⩽&thetas;⩽180°, an attempt was made to introduce circumferential corrugations on the outer surface of the waveguide wall. The design criterion used was that a minimum of 11 corrugations per wavelength were used, and in all there were 25 corrugations. The reason for selecting 25 corrugations was to ensure that the conduction currents induced on the outer walls of the guide were attenuated substantially and did not contribute to the far-out sidelobes. Measured E-plane and H-plane radiation patterns of the feeds and the corrugated waveguide are presented