Deformation characteristics of soil between prefabricated vertical drains under vacuum preloading

The deformation characteristics of soil among prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) subjected to vacuum pressure are investigated using a model test conducted on dredged slurry. Red iron particles are used to indirectly indicate the lateral displacement of soil under vacuum preloading. Test results showed that, in addition to the settlement of soil between two PVDs, there was also lateral displacement that varied with consolidation time and lateral distance from the PVD because of lateral vacuum suction. The lateral displacement arose successively with the increasing lateral distance. And it increased from zero on the PVD surface and dropped back to zero again at the midpoint between the two PVDs. There should have been a maximum value of the lateral displacement at a point near the PVD. The combined vertical and lateral displacement formed a soil pile around the PVD and showed a ‘V’ shaped soil surface.     

Preloading using fill surcharge and prefabricated vertical drains for an airport

This paper presents the field measurements and analysis of a preloading project with the installation of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) in Wenzhou, China. At the site, PVDs were installed to a depth of 22?m from the ground surface with a spacing of 1.5?m in a triangular pattern. The preloading fill thickness was 6?m with a unit weight of approximately 18 kN/m³. After a total elapsed time of 310 days, approximately 3?m thick fill was removed. The measured preloading settlement was approximately 1.5?m. The measurements and analytical results indicated that the soil layer with PVD improvement reached almost 100% primary consolidation when part of the fill was removed. After partial unloading, the PVD-improved zone was in an over-consolidated state. After the runway was opened for traffic, a settlement increment of approximately 7?mm was monitored over a period of 11 months. Analysis indicated that the settlement was mainly due to the consolidation of soil layers below the PVD-improved zone and post-surcharge secondary consolidation of the PVD-improved zone. The values of the parameters related to PVD improvement were back-estimated from the field measurements. These findings can be used to guide the design of PVDs improvement along the east coast of China.     

Comparative analysis on performance of vertical drain improved clay deposit under vacuum or surcharge loading

This paper presents two well-instrumented large-scale field tests of PVD-improved soft soil with vacuum and surcharge preloading, respectively. The two large-scale field tests were conducted adjacent to each other with the same preload. A comparative analysis was performed to investigate the performance of subsoil (i.e., the ground settlement, the layered settlement, the lateral displacement of subsoil and pore water pressure) under vacuum preloading and equivalent surcharge preloading. Some design methods were verified based on the field data. Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) and Vane Shear Tests (VST) were conducted to assess the improvement effects on subsoil after preloading. The results showed that as compared with surcharge preloading, vacuum preloading mitigated the differential settlement of the ground. The vacuum pressure transmitted into the soil with a minor loss through the PVD length. From a practical point of view, the improvement effects by vacuum preloading and surcharge preloading were similar in terms of influence depth and soil strength based on the in-situ tests.     

Analysis of field performance of embankments on soft clay deposit with and without PVD-improvement

This paper presents a case history of the performance of two full-scale test embankments constructed on soft clay deposit in the eastern coastal region of China. One embankment was constructed on natural subsoil and the other was constructed on prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) improved subsoil. The thickness of the soft clay deposit without PVD-improvement was 19 m and with PVD-improved case was 23 m. The PVDs were installed to a depth of 19 m with spacing of 1.5 m in a triangular pattern. Field performance of the two embankments was analyzed using the finite element method. The following influential factors: (i) hydraulic conductivity of subsoil in field and (ii) discharge capacity of PVDs were investigated numerically. The back-analyzed results for the embankment on natural subsoil showed that the hydraulic conductivity ratio (C_f) of field to laboratory values is about 6. To analyse the PVD-improved subsoil, a simple approach using the equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity of PVD-improved subsoil was employed. The analytical results show that PVDs increased the bulk vertical hydraulic conductivity of soft subsoil by about 30 times compared to the original non-treated subsoil. The discharge capacity of PVDs in this field case is 79–100 m³/a, which is consistent with the findings from laboratory tests and other reported values in literature.     

Effects of temperature circulation on dredged sludge improved by vacuum preloading

Vacuum preloading is an effective and common method used for clay soil improvement. However, the smear zone generated by the installation of prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) hinders additional efficiency improvements. PVD combined with heat is applied to overcome this problem. This study presents a series of model tests conducted on clayey soil improved by vacuum preloading with different rectangular-wave temperature circulation modes to investigate the effects of cyclic temperature on vacuum consolidation. During the test, the settlement, pore-water pressure, and drainage were monitored. The degree of consolidation was analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness of this method, and the coefficient of energy consumption was used to quantify the energy consumption at different cyclic temperature modes. The results indicated that the rectangular-wave temperature circulation mode of 30–75–30 °C was the most effective. The results of this study contribute substantially to the state of knowledge regarding the cyclic temperature effects on dredged slurry performance subjected to vacuum preloading. Concurrently, a novel approach is introduced for the determination of the optimal soil consolidation.     

Improvement of ultra-soft soil using prefabricated vertical drains

A case study of using prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) to accelerate the consolidation of an ultra-soft fine-grained soil with high moisture content for a land reclamation project is described in this paper. Large-scale laboratory model tests were carried out to assess the suitability of the selected PVD and the effectiveness of the PVD in the consolidation of the ultra-soft soil. The model tests indicate that the discharge capacity of the drain can decrease substantially after the drain has experienced large deformations. To overcome this problem, PVDs were installed in two rounds. The first round was before the application of surcharge, and the second round was after substantial settlements have taken place. Field instrumentations were utilized to monitor the performance of PVDs during consolidation. The monitored settlement and pore water pressure results are presented and discussed. The study shows that it is effective to use PVD for the consolidation of the ultra-soft soil if special care has been taken in selection and installation of PVD and in fill placement to overcome the difficulties involved in the consolidation of ultra-soft soil.     

Predicting deformation of PVD improved deposit under vacuum and surcharge loads

A series of modified triaxial tests was conducted to investigate the deformation characteristics of mini-prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) unit cells. The factors considered are the (1) magnitudes of surcharge load (p_s) and vacuum pressure (p_vac); (2) pre-vacuum consolidation period (t_va) before applying surcharge load; (3) surcharge loading rate (SLR); and (4) initial effective stress state in the specimens. Based on the test results, relationships between the coefficient of earth pressure (K_es) at the end of surcharge load application and the normalized horizontal and vertical specimen strains are established. Further, a method is proposed for estimating the value of K_es, and therefore the horizontal and vertical strains of the PVD improved soil layer subjected to combined vacuum pressure and surcharge load using loading conditions and basic soil properties. Finally, the proposed method was applied to a case history reported in the literature and good agreement between the field-measured and calculated lateral displacement and settlement was obtained, which suggesting that the proposed method can be a useful tool for designing preloading projects involving combined vacuum and surcharge loads.     

New methods for measuring the installation depth of prefabricated vertical drains

The installation depth of prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) is one of the key factors affecting the outcome of soil improvement when PVDs are used to accelerate the consolidation of soft soil. As PVDs are installed underground, it is difficult to verify the installation depth of PVDs for quality control purpose.     

密实砂土中竖向受压PCC桩端阻力计算方法研究

采用基于可视化摄影测量技术的室内试验和理论分析方法,对密实砂土中竖向受压现浇混凝土大直径管桩(PCC桩)桩端土体变形破坏规律及其端阻力估算方法进行研究。结果表明:PCC桩桩端周围土体在极限荷载阶段形成楔形竖向压缩区和侧向剪切变形区,桩端土体竖向位移在相同深度处始终高于等直径实心桩,呈现冲压破坏特征。在此基础上,利用普朗德尔地基理论,构建了考虑地基滑动面角度变化的PCC桩桩端土体破坏模型,给出了桩端阻力的理论计算方法,并通过承载力系数分析以及理论与试验结果的对比,初步验证了计算方法的合理性,为进一步完善与发展PCC桩设计计算理论提供了科学依据。     

软土地基孔隙水压力降低引起的压缩分析

根据土力学基本原理,分析孔隙水压力降低引起的土体压缩方式,并对真空预压地基的分层沉降现场实测值和理论计算值进行分析;同时,定量分析真空预压地基在不同深处单位压缩量。研究结果表明:(1)若按有效应力原理水土压力分开计算、地基土体中孔隙水压力降低时,土体竖向总应力维持不变而侧向总应力减小;(2)土体中孔隙水压力在相对压强小于0的范围内降低时,将引起土体等向压缩,在相对压强大于0的范围内降低时,将引起土体单向压缩;(3)南沙港区的真空预压地基若其沉降按欠固结计算时,计算值与实测值接近,自重应力欠固结引起的沉降是抽真空期间地基总沉降主要部分;(4)真空预压的加固深度随排水体深度增加而增大,土层压密效果随地层深度增加而减弱,故降低孔隙水压力法在加固软土地基中,设计排水体深度时应考虑最佳加固深度。     

真空-堆载联合预压加固软基简化计算方法

在深入了解真空预压机理和砂井地基固结理论的基础上 ,根据固结度等效的原则 ,推导了与单井固结理论等效的成层均质地基等效渗透系数 ,从而将复杂砂井地基转化为无砂井成层地基 ,以达到简化计算的目的 ,并结合真空-堆载联合预压的加固特点 ,提出一种简化的真空-堆载联合预压法的有限元计算方法 ,并结合工程实例对简化方法的可靠性进行了研究 ,通过与实测资料和常规砂井地基有限元计算值对比 ,表明该简化方法具有较高的准确性 ,可方便地应用于工程设计和实践。     

考虑板土相互作用的排水板通水特性试验研究

为研究排水板在实际工况下的通水特性,研制排水板纵向通水量测试新仪器,采用室内真空预压模型试验、堆载预压模型试验和直接充灌淤泥等方法来制作板土单元体(试样),并开展板土单元体(试样)通水能力测试。试验结果表明:无论是直接充灌淤泥法、堆载预压法还是真空预压法,高性能排水板通水量均大于现行规程试验结果,而普通排水板通水量均小于现行规程试验结果,现行规程方法高估了真空预压后普通排水板的通水能力。对比结果表明:高性能排水板在堆载预压后通水能力与真空预压后通水能力接近,而普通排水板在堆载预压后通水能力明显高于真空预压后通水能力。因此,对于变形大且固结时间长的新近吹填淤泥地基加固工程应优先选用高性能排水板。     

Radial consolidation of PVD-Installed normally consolidated soil with discharge capacity reduction using large-strain theory

The radial consolidation rate of prefabricated vertical drain (PVD)-installed soft deposits is known to be closely related to the PVD discharge capacity, which usually decreases during consolidation. Conventional solutions for radial consolidation of PVD-installed deposits have been developed to consider discharge capacity reduction using small-strain theory, in which the volume compressibility coefficient and soil permeability were assumed to be constant. This paper formulates a general expression for discharge capacity reduction with time in numerical analysis based on large-strain theory. Soil disturbance effects caused by PVD installation, such as a nonlinear distribution for radial hydraulic conductivity, are captured in the proposed solution. The proposed solution was applied to field data from a test embankment at Saga Airport. The proposed solution provides a good result which is close to the measured data.     

Experimental study on the clogging effect of dredged fill surrounding the PVD under vacuum preloading

Clogging effect surrounding prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) is a typical problem when vacuum preloading is applied to a dredged fill foundation. A large-scale model test was designed to clarify the cause and mechanism of the clogging effect, and the basic physical and mechanical parameters of the soil in the clogging zone were tracked during the test. The results demonstrated that a clogging zone was formed around the PVD in the early stage of improvement with conventional vacuum preloading, and the boundary of the clogging zone was approximately 0.2–0.4 of the boundary radius. The clogging zone surrounding the PVD was formed because of the overall movement of the soil toward the PVD under the high vacuum pressure gradient, rather than fine particle migration. The soil in the clogging zone exhibited permeability anisotropy and equivalent ‘smear’ effect. The permeability ratio (k_h/k_v) was less than 1, and the ratio of horizontal permeability coefficients at the test distances of 45 cm and 10 cm were 9.6 at a depth of 20 cm and 8.9 at a depth of 80 cm. An analysis of the microstructure of the soil in the clogging zone demonstrated that the clay particles tended to be vertically oriented. The re-orientation of the clay particles reduced the horizontal permeability coefficient and led to the permeability anisotropy of the soil in the clogging zone. Thus, decrease in the horizontal permeability coefficient and equivalent ‘smear’ effect of the soil in the clogging zone affect the consolidation of dredged fill, which leads to the clogging effect. The permeability anisotropy also slightly affects consolidation.     

Analytical solutions to the axisymmetric consolidation of a multi-layer soil system under surcharge combined with vacuum preloading

Surcharge combined with vacuum preloading is a common technique for accelerating the consolidation process in ground improvement. A unit cell model for the axisymmetric consolidation of a soft soil using a prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) under a surcharge, combined with vacuum preloading, is investigated in this study. Based on this model, analytical solutions for a multi-layer soil system are put forward and the explicit expressions for two-layer and one-layer systems are presented. The accuracy of the proposed solution is verified using an analytical solution available in the literature. In the parametric study, the influencing factors on the consolidation process, such as, the smear zone, the PVD spacing, the hydraulic conductivity in the radial direction, the coefficient of vacuum decrease, are taken into account. The water flow in the radial direction plays an important role in the consolidation process while the impact of the vertical flow mainly develops around the interfaces between two adjacent layers. In addition, the proposed analytical solution is applied in a case history with three different layers and the results are reasonable.     

排水板真空堆载预压法在大厚度软基处理中的应用

真空-堆载预压法在处理大厚度淤泥质软基上的公路差异沉降和稳定性问题中应用广泛,本文从加固机理出发,根据工程现场的监测数据对预压期间各土层的沉降、侧向位移、孔隙水压力进行了分析,认为前期真空预压时沉降主要发生在淤泥层,堆载加压后填土层沉降较大;堆载作用下淤泥层发生蠕变现象,判断其与竖向荷载大小、层间土弹性模量比及软弱层的厚度有关。另外,由于水压消散值的测定受真空和堆载联合作用而随时间变化较复杂,推荐用沉降量推算固结度。     

抽水井附近MJS桩施工引起的土体位移

在复杂的场地条件下,尤其是场地内存在抽水井等不良地质条件时,MJS桩施工对周围土体位移的影响仍然缺乏深入的认识。基于上海某基坑工程,对附近存在抽水井时MJS桩垂直施工引起的土体位移进行监测,包括地表垂直位移、深层土体垂直位移、深层土体水平位移,施工结束后在设计桩边界和抽水井之间钻孔取样。研究结果表明:MJS桩垂直施工期间地表微隆起,深层土体的水平位移比垂直位移大;在距设计桩边界1 m处,土体最大水平位移(32.86 mm)的67%是受抽水井影响。抽水试验使抽水井周围土体细粒含量减少,MJS桩在附近施工时,高压水泥浆更容易切割土体,成桩直径更大,从而土体水平位移明显增加。因此,工程上应重视附近存在抽水井时MJS桩施工引起的土体侧向位移。     

Prefabricated and electrical vertical drains for consolidation of soft clay

The use of prefabricated vertical drains to consolidate soft clay is a common ground improvement method. In large projects laboratory testing of PVDs for selection and quality assurance is considered important. This paper presents a review of PVD laboratory testing. The need to provide simulated site conditions in the test is emphasized. In addition instrumented PVDs show that installation stresses in deep soft clay deposits could cause filter rupture under tensile failure. It is also shown that the maximum required discharge capacity of a PVD is obtained by equating the flow rate of the PVD under the installation and consolidation states to the maximum rate of volume reduction of the influential clay cylinder of the PVD. Consolidation can be enhanced much faster in clay soils if vertical drains manufactured with conducting polymer are used. Some laboratory tests, field tests and field applications of such electric vertical drains (EVD) are presented. A minimum current density at appropriate applied voltage is required to benefit from the electric osmosis (EO) application. EVD in dewatering clay soils, extracting heavy metals in clay soils and few other geotechnical applications are also presented.     

塑料套管混凝土桩挤土效应的非侵入可视化研究

 结合透明土、粒子图像测速(PIV)和近景摄影测量3种技术,研究塑料套管混凝土桩(TC桩)的挤土效应,并对周围土体的变形规律进行探讨,且与传统静压桩打设引起的土体变形进行对比。试验结果表明：圆锥桩尖引起的最大变形量相比平底桩尖的降低了40%;而在平底桩尖TC桩的成桩过程中,影响区域扩展到了远离桩体中心线11倍桩径处,而对于圆锥桩尖,则为6倍桩径;沉管上拔引起的土体移动主要发生在上拔前期,对于圆锥桩尖TC桩,其沉管上拔过程引起的最大位移量和影响区域分别约为平底桩尖的57%和33%,然而,在TC桩成桩过程中,沉管打设是引起土体变形的主导因素,沉管上拔引起的土体恢复变形较小;在与TC桩沉管直径相同条件下,传统静压桩打设引起的土体变形量与TC桩的相一致,然而其影响区域略小。     

Influence of Benoto bored pile construction on nearby existing tunnel: A case study

The monitoring and analysis of lateral displacement for metro tunnels are very important because the metro systems are the lifeline of metropolises. This paper presents a case study of a site in Nanjing, China, where the Benoto bored piles were constructed nearby the existing tunnel. The construction technology, a combination of the Benoto bored piles construction and the conventional construction technology of circulating slurry, is illustrated in detail. The lateral displacement at six test sections were measured and discussed to assess the impact of piles installation on the stability and integrity of the existing tunnel. The measured results showed that during the construction period using the Benoto method, relatively large lateral displacement occurred at the depth with soft soil (Mucky silty clay), with characteristics including a large void ratio, high plasticity, poor permeability, high water content, low shear strength, and low modulus of deformation. During the construction period of the conventional Circulating-Slurry method, negative lateral displacement occurred below the tip of the casing due to the soil arching effect, indicating an inward movement towards the Benoto bored piles. The maximum lateral displacement decreased as the distance between piles and inclinometers increased, with a maximum difference of 45% at the end of the measurements. It was also observed that the measured maximum lateral displacement was less than the cumulative trigger value of 20 mm, indicating an effectiveness of Benoto bored piles constructed adjacent to existing tunnel. This case study may provide the means for a qualitative assessment for engineering constructions where the situation bears similarities.