An energy-aware grid-based routing scheme for wireless sensor networks

As an important field of emerging technology, wireless sensor networks (WSN) offer many new possibilities for applications such as target tracking and environmental surveillance by allowing the observer to move around freely. However, disseminating sensing data to the mobile observer raises significant design challenges for the routing scheme. In addition, WSN often operate under certain energy constraints, and therefore reducing energy dissipation in order to prolong the lifetime of the WSN is another challenge that must be faced. Most proposed routing protocols focus on achieving effective data dissemination and energy efficiency at the same time as working to satisfy the requirements of the mobile observer. However, almost all of these methods use frequent rerouting as a way of handling the mobility issue. Such rerouting increases both overheads and energy consumption, resulting in a trade-off between the need for rerouting to optimize network operations and that of maximizing network lifetime. This paper presents the Energy-aware Grid-based Routing Scheme (EAGER) for WSN with mobile observers, which is an approach that seeks to save more energy in the context of dynamic topology. In this paper, EAGER is compared to other proposed grid-based schemes by using extensive simulations. These simulations clearly show that EAGER outperforms other grid-based schemes in terms of both energy efficiency and routing performance.     

ECRP: an energy-aware cluster-based routing protocol for wireless sensor networks

Energy conservation is the main issue in wireless sensor networks. Many existing clustering protocols have been proposed to balance the energy consumption and maximize the battery lifetime of sensor nodes. However, these protocols suffer from the excessive overhead due to repetitive clustering resulting in high-energy consumption. In this paper, we propose energy-aware cluster-based routing protocol (ECRP) in which not only the cluster head (CH) role rotates based on energy around all cluster members until the end of network functioning to avoid frequent re-clustering, but also it can adapt the network topology change. Further, ECRP introduces a multi-hop routing algorithm so that the energy consumption is minimized and balanced. As well, a fault-tolerant mechanism is proposed to cope up with the failure of CHs and relay nodes. We perform extensive simulations on the proposed protocol using different network scenarios. The simulation results demonstrate the superiority of ECRP compared with recent and relevant existing protocols in terms of main performance metrics.

     

Intelligent energy-aware and secured QoS routing protocol with dynamic mobility estimation for wireless sensor networks

Wireless Networks - In this work, a new protocol is proposed for sender-based responsive techniques on energy, mobility, and effective routing for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). It addresses...     

An energy aware event-driven routing protocol for cognitive radio sensor networks

Cognitive radio sensor network (CRSN) is an intelligent and reasonable combination of cognitive radio technology and wireless sensor networks. It poses significant challenges to the design of topology maintenance techniques due to dynamic primary-user activities, which in turn decreases the data delivery performance of the network as well as it’s lifetime. This paper aims to provide a solution to the CRSN clustering and routing problem using an energy aware event-driven routing protocol (ERP) for CRSN. Upon detection of an event, the ERP determines eligible nodes for clustering according to local positions of CRSN nodes between the event and the sink and their residual energy levels. Cluster-heads are selected from the eligible nodes according to their residual energy values, available channels, neighbors and distance to the sink. In ERP, cluster formation is based on relative spectrum awareness such that channels with lower primary user appearance probability are selected as common data channels for clusters. For data routing, ERP employs hop-by-hop data forwarding approach through the CHs and primary/secondary gateways towards the sink. Through extensive simulations, we demonstrate that the proposed ERP provides with better network performances compared to those of the state-of-the-art protocols under a dynamic spectrum-aware data transmission environment.     

An energy-aware and load balanced distributed geographic routing algorithm for wireless sensor networks with dynamic hole

Wireless Networks - The increasing usage of wireless sensor networks in human life is an indication of the high importance of this technology. Holes in wireless sensor networks are non-operating...     

Trust-based energy-aware routing using GEOSR protocol for Ad-Hoc sensor networks

Wireless Networks - The openness nature of the Ad-hoc sensor networks emerged as a security threat in this network environment that leads to packets drop, network overhead, high range energy...     

A dynamic reconfigurable routing framework for wireless sensor networks

Sensornet deployments of the future are expected to deliver a multitude of services, ranging from reliable sensing, real time streams, mission critical support, network reprogramming and so on. Naturally, no one routing protocol can sufficiently cater to the network layer functionalities expected. Severe resource constraints further limit the possibility of multiple routing protocols to be implemented. Further, vertically integrated designs of present protocols hinder synergy and code-reuse among implementations. In this paper, we present an architecture that allows applications to send different types of flows, often with conflicting communication requirements. A flow’s requirements are made visible to our framework by using just 3 bits in the packet header. The core architecture is a collection of highly composable modules that allows rapid protocol development and deployment. We show that our framework can provide: (i) flow based network functionality that ensures each flow gets an application specific network layer which is dynamically knit as per the flow’s needs, (ii) modular organization that promotes code-reuse, run time sharing, synergy and rapid protocol development and (iii) pull processing that allows flows to dictate their traffic rate in the network, and implement flexible scheduling policies. This creates a framework for developing, testing, integrating, and validating protocols that are highly portable from one deployment to another. Using our framework, we show that virtually any communication pattern can be described to the framework. We validate this by gathering requirements for one real world application scenario: predictive maintenance (PdM). The requirements are used to generate a fairly complete and realistic traffic workload to drive our evaluation. Using simulations and 40 node MicaZ testbed experiments, we show that our framework can meet the deployments demands at granularities not seen before in sensornets. We measure the costs of using this framework in terms of code size, memory footprints and forwarding costs on MicaZ motes.     

A dynamic-clustering reactive routing algorithm for wireless sensor networks

The clustering is a key routing method for large-scale wireless sensor networks, which effective extends the lifetime and the expansibility of network. In this paper, a node model is defined based on the structure and transmission principle of neuron, and a dynamic-clustering reactive routing algorithm is proposed. Once the event emergences, the cluster head is dynamic selected in the incident region according to the residual energy. The data collected by the cluster head is sent back to the Sink along the network backbone. Two kinds of accumulation ways are designed to increase the efficiency of data collection. Meanwhile through the fluctuation of action-threshold, the cluster head can trace the changing speed of incident; the nodes outside the incident region use this fluctuation to send data periodically. Finally, the simulation results verify that the DCRR algorithm extends the network’s lifetime considerably and adapts to the change of network scale. The analysis shows that DCRR has more prominent advantages under low and middle load.

A centralized energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks consist of small battery powered devices with limited energy resources. Once deployed, the small sensor nodes are usually inaccessible to the user, and thus replacement of the energy source is not feasible. Hence, energy efficiency is a key design issue that needs to be enhanced in order to improve the life span of the network. Several network layer protocols have been proposed to improve the effective lifetime of a network with a limited energy supply. In this article we propose a centralized routing protocol called base-station controlled dynamic clustering protocol (BCDCP), which distributes the energy dissipation evenly among all sensor nodes to improve network lifetime and average energy savings. The performance of BCDCP is then compared to clustering-based schemes such as low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH), LEACH-centralized (LEACH-C), and power-efficient gathering in sensor information systems (PEGASIS). Simulation results show that BCDCP reduces overall energy consumption and improves network lifetime over its comparatives.     

A survey on routing protocols for wireless sensor networks

Recent advances in wireless sensor networks have led to many new protocols specifically designed for sensor networks where energy awareness is an essential consideration. Most of the attention, however, has been given to the routing protocols since they might differ depending on the application and network architecture. This paper surveys recent routing protocols for sensor networks and presents a classification for the various approaches pursued. The three main categories explored in this paper are data-centric, hierarchical and location-based. Each routing protocol is described and discussed under the appropriate category. Moreover, protocols using contemporary methodologies such as network flow and quality of service modeling are also discussed. The paper concludes with open research issues.     

Enhanced tree routing for wireless sensor networks

Tree routing (TR) is a low-overhead routing protocol designated for simple, low-cost and low-power wireless sensor networks. It avoids flooding the network with path search and update messages in order to conserve bandwidth and energy by using only parent–child links for packet forwarding. The major drawback of TR is the increased hop-counts as compared with more sophisticated path search protocols. We propose an enhanced tree routing (ETR) strategy for sensor networks which have structured node address assignment schemes. In addition to the parent–child links, ETR also uses links to other one-hop neighbours if it is decided that this will lead to a shorter path. It is shown that such a decision can be made with minimum storage and computing cost by utilizing the address structure. Detailed algorithms for applying ETR to ZigBee networks are also presented. Simulation results reveal that ETR not only outperforms TR in terms of hop-counts, but also is more energy-efficient than TR.     

基于地理-机会的水下无线传感网的混合路由

水下无线传感网络UWSNs被认为是监测海洋最有前景的技术。然而,声信道特性给UWSNs的数据采集提出了挑战。提高UWSNs数据采集效率的有效方式就是融合水下声通信和高动态网络拓扑的特性,设计高性能的路由协议。为此,提出基于地理-机会的水下无线传感网的混合路由,记为GOHR。在GOHR协议中,源节点先计算候选转发节点集,并计算集内每个节点的归一化权重值,再依据归一化权重值对集内节点进行排序,并形成转发节点簇。然后,计算每个簇的期望权重值,最后,选择期望权重值最大的簇内节点作为数据包转发节点。为了避免簇内节点转发数据包时发生碰撞,设置定时延时转发机制。仿真结果表明,提出的GOHR协议提高了数据包传递率,降低了数据包的传输时延。     

An energy-aware routing protocol for wireless sensor network based on genetic algorithm

Energy saving and effective utilization are an essential issue for wireless sensor network. Most previous cluster based routing protocols only care the relationship of cluster heads and sensor nodes but ignore the huge difference costs between them. In this paper, we present a routing protocol based on genetic algorithm for a middle layer oriented network in which the network consists of several stations that are responsible for receiving data and forwarding the data to the sink. The amount of stations should be not too many and not too few. Both cases will cause either too much construction cost or extra transmission energy consumption. We implement five methods to compare the performance and test the stability of our presented methods. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed scheme reduces the amount of stations by 36.8 and 20% compared with FF and HL in 100-node network. Furthermore, three methods are introduced to improve our proposed scheme for effective cope with the expansion of network scale problem.     

MiniTE: data acquisition routing for wireless sensor networks

Routing is one of the most important supporting parts in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) application that directly affects the application efficiency. Routing time and energy consumption are two major factors used to evaluate WSNs routing. This article proposes a minimum routing time and energy consumption (MiniTE) routing, which can ensure feasibility of the routing protocol both in routing time and energy consumption. Based on the MiniTE, WSNs can be partitioned into different regions according to the received signal strength indication (RSSI). Messages are sent by nodes in the region to their parent node and again up to their parent node until finally to the sink node. Theoretic evaluation and simulation results are given to verify the features of the protocol.     

EATMR: an energy-aware trust algorithm based the AODV protocol and multi-path routing approach in wireless sensor networks

Telecommunication Systems - Queueing models play a significant role in analysing the performance of power management systems in various electronic devices and communication systems. This paper...     

A probability based stable routing for cognitive radio adhoc networks

Cognitive Radio is devised as a wireless communication technology that enables user to communicate without having a fixed pre assigned radio spectrum. The technology facilitates the utilization of temporarily unused portion of radio frequency in the licensed spectrum region. Since its invention, researchers have carried out their investigation in various directions like spectrum sensing, spectrum allocation, routing etc. In this paper, a routing mechanism is proposed for cognitive radio adhoc network named as proposed stable routing (PSR). The proposed algorithm constructs path from source to destination considering the probability of stability of the selected channel. The channel is considered stable if the probability that the channel would be claimed by the concerned primary user during the operation of secondary user is comparatively low. PSR is simulated in ns-2 and compared with Cognitive AODV (CAODV) protocol. Observation shows that PSR outperforms CAODV in terms of route survival time, routing overhead and packet loss rate.     

A Tabu search based routing algorithm for wireless sensor networks

In this paper, a Tabu search based routing algorithm is proposed to efficiently determine an optimal path from a source to a destination in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). There have been several methods proposed for routing algorithms in wireless sensor networks. In this paper, the Tabu search method is exploited for routing in WSNs from a new point of view. In this algorithm (TSRA), a new move and neighborhood search method is designed to integrate energy consumption and hop counts into routing choice. The proposed algorithm is compared with some of the ant colony optimization based routing algorithms, such as traditional ant colony algorithm, ant colony optimization-based location-aware routing for wireless sensor networks, and energy and path aware ant colony algorithm for routing of wireless sensor networks, in term of routing cost, energy consumption and network lifetime. Simulation results, for various random generated networks, demonstrate that the TSRA, obtains more balanced transmission among the node, reduces the energy consumption and cost of the routing, and extends the network lifetime.     

Traffic aware field-based routing for wireless sensor networks

Telecommunication Systems - Route estimation process often involves significant message exchanges among wireless sensor nodes while selecting the least cost path. Nodes along this path handle more...     

Hierarchical geographic multicast routing for wireless sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks comprise typically dense deployments of large networks of small wireless capable sensor devices. In such networks, multicast is a fundamental routing service for efficient data dissemination required for activities such as code updates, task assignment and targeted queries. In particular, efficient multicast for sensor networks is critical due to the limited energy availability in such networks. Multicast protocols that exploit location information available from GPS or localization algorithms are more efficient and robust than other stateful protocols as they avoid the difficulty of maintaining distributed state (multicast tree). Since localization is typically already required for sensing applications, this location information can simply be reused for optimizing multicast performance at no extra cost. Recently, two protocols were proposed to optimize two orthogonal aspects of location-based multicast protocols: GMR (Sanchez et al. GMR: Geographic multicast routing for wireless sensor networks. In Proceedings of the IEEE SECON, 2006) improves the forwarding efficiency by exploiting the wireless multicast advantage but it suffers from scalability issues when dealing with large sensor networks. On the other hand, HRPM (Das et al. Distributed hashing for scalable multicast in wireless ad hoc networks. IEEE TPDS 47(4):445–487, 2007) reduces the encoding overhead by constructing a hierarchy at virtually no maintenance cost via the use of geographic hashing but it is energy-inefficient due to inefficacies in forwarding data packets. In this paper, we present HGMR (hierarchical geographic multicast routing), a new location-based multicast protocol that seamlessly incorporates the key design concepts of GMR and HRPM and optimizes them for wireless sensor networks by providing both forwarding efficiency (energy efficiency) as well as scalability to large networks. Our simulation studies show that: (i) In an ideal environment, HGMR incurs a number of transmissions either very close to or lower than GMR, and, at the same time, an encoding overhead very close to HRPM, as the group size or the network size increases. (ii) In a realistic environment, HGMR, like HRPM, achieves a Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) that is close to perfect and much higher than GMR. Further, HGMR has the lowest packet delivery latency among the three protocols, while incurring much fewer packet transmissions than HRPM. (iii) HGMR is equally efficient with both uniform and non-uniform group member distributions.     

Flow-balanced routing for multi-hop clustered wireless sensor networks

Power efficiency and coverage preservation are two important performance metrics for a wireless sensor network. However, there is scarcely any protocol to consider them at the same time. In this paper, we propose a flow-balanced routing (FBR) protocol for multi-hop clustered wireless sensor networks that attempts to achieve both power efficiency and coverage preservation. The proposed protocol consists of four algorithms, one each for network clustering, multi-hop backbone construction, flow-balanced transmission, and rerouting. The proposed clustering algorithm groups several sensors into one cluster on the basis of overlapping degrees of sensors. The backbone construction algorithm constructs a novel multi-level backbone, which is not necessarily a tree, using the cluster heads and the sink. Furthermore, the flow-balanced routing algorithm assigns the transferred data over multiple paths from the sensors to the sink in order to equalize the power consumption of sensors. Lastly, the rerouting algorithm reconstructs the network topology only in a place where a head drops out from the backbone due to the head running out of its energy. Two metrics called the network lifetime and the coverage lifetime are used to evaluate the performance of FBR protocol in comparison with previous ones. The simulation results show that FBR yields both much longer lifetime and better coverage preservation than previous protocols. For example, FBR yields more than twice network lifetime and better coverage preservation than a previous efficient protocol, called the coverage-preserving clustering protocol (CPCP) [18], when the first sensor dies and the network coverage is kept at 100%, respectively.