Desulfurization of liquid steel containing aluminum or silicon with lime

The reaction mechanisms for the desulfurization of iron containing from 0.04 to 1.5 pct aluminum or 1.1 to 3.7 pct silicon by CaO at 1600° have been examined. The desulfurization of Fe-Al by CaO is considerably faster than that of Fe-Si. The basic difference between the two processes is that Fe-Al alloys can be desulfurized by the formation of AI₂O₃, whereas for Fe-Si melts it is necessary to form Ca₂SiO₄. The rate of desulfurization of Fe-Si alloys by CaO is controlled by the formation of the gaseous intermediates, SiS and S, and is the same as that for desulfurization in vacuum. The rate of desulfurization of Fe-Al melts is fast, and is apparently controlled by the diffusion of sulfur to the liquid metal—CaO interface. Experiments were also conducted to demonstrate that sulfur could be transferred to CaO by the gaseous intermediates SiS and S.     

Microstructural characterization of dissimilar friction stir welds between AA2219 and AA5083

Fusion welding of dissimilar aluminum alloys is very challenging. In the present work, Al-Cu alloy AA2219-T87 was friction stir welded to Al-Mg alloy AA5083-H321. Weld microstructures, hardness, and tensile properties were evaluated in as-welded condition. Microstructural studies revealed that the nugget region was primarily composed of alloy 2219, which was placed on the advancing side. No significant mixing of the two base materials in the nugget region was observed. Hardness studies revealed that the lowest hardness in the weldment occurred in the heat-affected zone on alloy 5083 side, where tensile failure were observed to take place. Tensile tests indicated a joint efficiency of around 90%, which is substantially higher than what can be achieved with conventional fusion welding. Overall, the results show that satisfactory butt welds can be produced between AA2219-T87 and Al-Mg alloy AA5083-H321 sheets using friction stir welding.     

The undercooling of aluminum

An important parameter affecting microstructure development during solidification is the amount of undercooling prior to nucleation. The undercooling potential of aluminum has been assessed by thermal analysis measurements on powder dispersions of the liquid metal. A number of variables have been identified which influence the undercooling of powder Al samples including powder coating, powder size, melt cooling rate, and melt superheat. Surface analysis by Auger electron spectroscopy indicates that changing the medium in which the powders are produced is an effective method of altering the coating chemistry. Factorial design analysis has been employed to quantify the potential of processing variables to increase the undercooling level obtainable in aluminum. The factorial analysis indicates that control of the powder coating through changing the medium in which the powders are produced is most effective in decreasing the nucleation temperature. Additionally, the finest powders produced in the medium which induces the least catalytic coating, when cooled at high rates,T = 500 °C/s, from low superheats,T _s = 710 °C, are found to achieve the deepest undercooling, ΔT = 175 °C. These studies provide the basis for further increases in undercooling and for future investigations into the solidification reactions which produce both stable and metastable structures in aluminum alloys.     

In situ observations of crystalline oxide formation during aluminum and aluminum alloy oxidation

Anin situ morphological study of the oxidation of electron transparent specimens of aluminum and aluminum alloys containing zinc and magnesium has been carried out in the temperature range 400 to 520°C using the hot stage of a 1 MeV transmission electron microscope. The structure and morphology of the crystalline oxide produced in each alloy has been carefully examined by selected area electron diffraction and stereomicroscopy. In pure aluminum, oxidation takes place after a temperature dependent induction period, by the nucleation of crystalline γ-Al₂O₃ at the amorphous oxide/metal interface. This process is delayed by additions of zinc which modify the structure of the oxide. In alloys containing magnesium, oxidation takes place by the rapid nucleation and growth of MgAl₂O₄ or MgO, with a secondary form of magnesia developing from the reduction of the amorphous γ-Al₂O₃ surface layer.

     

Pinholes in pyrolytic oxide deposited on silicon and metals

Low temperature pyrolytic oxide films are deposited on silicon, aluminum, and molybdenum substrates and their pinhole density is investigated. Alumnium and molybdenum substates were prepared by depositing the metal films on oxidized silicon. Pinhole density in pyrolytic oxide is detected by electrophoretic decoration for silicon substrates, acid etching for aluminum substrates, and hot water dissolution for molybdenum substrates. Pinhole density decreased with increasing deposition temperature and film thickness, and with decreasing deposition rate. In general, the SiO₂ deposited on chemical-mechanical polished silicon showed lower pinhole density than those deposited on metal substrates. Substrate surface defects and surface dust particles are major causes of pinholes in deposited SiO₂.     

Thermodynamic properties of aluminum, magnesium, and calcium in molten silicon

The thermodynamic properties of aluminum, magnesium, and calcium in molten silicon were investigated using a chemical equilibration technique at 1723 to 1848 K, 1698 to 1798 K, and 1723 to 1823 K, respectively. The activity coefficient of aluminum in molten silicon was determined by equilibrating molten silicon-aluminum alloys with solid Al₂O₃ and Al₆Si₂O₁₃, that of magnesium was determined by equilibrating molten silicon-magnesium alloys and MgO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃ melts doubly saturated with MgSiO₃ and SiO₂, and that of calcium was determined by equilibrating molten silicon-calcium alloys with SiO₂-saturated CaO-SiO₂ melts. The activity coefficients at infinite dilution relative to the pure liquid state were determined as follows:

Diffusional creep and creep-degradation in dispersion-strengthened Ni-Cr base alloys

Dispersoid-free regions were observed in the dispersion-strengthened alloy TD-NiCr (Ni-20 Cr-2 ThO₂) after, slow strain rate testing (stress rupture, creep, and fatigue) in air from 1145 to 1590 K. Formation of the dispersoid-free regions appears to be the result of diffusional creep. The net effect of creep in TD-NiCr is the degradation of the alloy to a duplex microstructure. Creep degradation of TD-NiCr is further enhanced by the formation of voids and intergranular oxidation in the dispersoid-free bands. Void formation was observed after as litte as 0.13 pct creep deformation at 1255 K. The dispersoid-free regions apparently provide sites for void formation and oxide growth since the strength and oxidation resistance of Ni-20 Cr is much less than Ni-20 Cr-2 ThO₂. This localized oxidation does not appear to reduce the static load bearing capacity of TD-NiCr since long stress-rupture lives were observed even with heavily oxidized microstructures, but this oxidation does significantly reduce the ductility and impact resistance of the material. Dispersoid-free bands and voids also were observed in two other dispersion-strengthened alloys, TD-NiCrAl (Ni-16Cr-4 Al-2 ThO₂) and IN-853 (Ni-20 Cr-2.5 Ti-1.5 Al-1.3 Y₂O₃). Thus, it appears that diffusional creep is characteristic of dispersion-strengthened alloys and can play a major role in the creep degradation of these materials.     

Thermodynamics of oxygen solutions in the complex reduction of Fe-Co melts

Thermodynamic analysis of the complex reduction of metal melts is considered. The proposed analytical method identifies the influence of the weaker reducing agent in amplifying the effect of the stronger reagent. The curves of oxygen solubility pass through a minimum. Analysis of the extremal curves of oxygen concentration in the melt as a function of the content of reducing agents yields a formula for the content of the stronger reducing agent such that the oxygen concentration is minimal. Thermodynamic analysis of the combined influence of aluminum and silicon on the oxygen solubility in Fe-Co melts indicates that the reaction products may contain both mullite (3Al₂O₃ · 2SiO₂) and kyanite (Al₂O₃ · SiO₂). The presence of silicon in the melt intensifies the reducing action of aluminum: slightly when mullite is formed and significantly when kyanite is formed. When kyanite is formed, the curves of oxygen solubility pass through a minimum, whose position depends on the aluminum content in the melt but not on the silicon content. The aluminum content at the minimum declines slightly from iron to cobalt, as for Fe-Co-Al systems. Further addition of aluminum elevates the oxygen concentration. The formation of the compounds Al₂O₃, 3Al₂O₃ · 2SiO₂, Al₂O₃ · SiO₂, and SiO₂ is investigated as a function of the Al and Si content in the melt.     

The Wear Behavior of In-Situ Al–AlN Metal Matrix Composites

Al–AlN composites are synthesized using NH₄Cl + CaO powder as a nitrogenation precursor in the melt of pure aluminum. In-situ formation of AlN to varying volume fraction is attempted using different proportion of NH₄Cl + CaO precursor into the aluminum melt held at 700 °C. Mechanical properties of synthesized metal matrix composites are evaluated for different volume fraction and distribution of AlN particles in aluminum matrix. Agglomeration of AlN is noticed with increasing precursor addition and synthesis time into the aluminum matrix. Due to heterogeneous distribution of AlN particles in aluminum matrix, marginal changes in hardness are observed. Pin on disc, dry sliding wear of metal matrix composites is carried to study wear behavior of synthesized composites. Composite with good dispersion of AlN particulates has shown higher hardness and wear resistance. Present paper discusses wear behavior of composites with different weight fraction of AlN tested under load and sliding distance as wear parameters. The shearing mechanism of agglomerate due to friction and its correlation with the wear loss is also highlighted in the present paper.     

New explosive welding technique to weld

Various aluminum alloys and stainless steel were explosively welded using a thin stainless steel intermediate plate inserted between the aluminum alloy driver and stainless steel base plates. At first, the velocity change of the driver plate with flying distance is calculated using finite- difference analysis. Since the kinetic energy lost by collision affects the amount of the fused layer generated at the interface between the aluminum alloy and stainless steel, the use of a thin stainless steel intermediate plate is effective for decreasing the energy dissipated by the collision. The interfacial zone at the welded interface is composed of a fine eutectic structure of aluminum and Fe₄Al₁₃, and the explosive welding process of this metal combination proceeds mainly by intensive deformation of the aluminum alloy. The weldable region for various aluminum alloys is decided by the change in collision velocity and kinetic energy lost by collision, and the weldable region is decreased with the increase in the strength of the aluminum alloy.     

Strength Improvement Through Grain Refinement of Intermetallic Compound at Al/Fe Dissimilar Joint Interface by the Addition of Alloying Elements

Dissimilar material joining between Al alloys and steel may be effective in decreasing the weight of automobile bodies. In this study, dissimilar lap joining of Al alloys containing certain alloying elements, such as Ni, Cr, Mn, Ti, or Si, to interstitial-free steel was performed by tungsten inert gas arc brazing, and the effect of the alloying element on the joint strength associated with the Al-Fe intermetallic compound layer at the dissimilar interface was examined. The addition of an appropriate amount of an alloying element to the alloy increased the joint strength; the addition of Ni exhibited the most effective improvement. The additions of some elements changed the grain structure of the η-Fe₂Al₅ layer but not its chemical composition. This is the first study to clarify that smaller grain size of η-Fe₂Al₅ correlated to greater strength of the Al/Fe dissimilar joint.     

Surface oxide and the role of magnesium during the sintering of aluminum

The effect of trace additions of magnesium on the sintering of aluminum and its alloys is examined. Magnesium, especially at low concentrations, has a disproportionate effect on sintering because it disrupts the passivating Al₂O₃ layer through the formation of a spinel phase. Magnesium penetrates the sintering compact by solid-state diffusion, and the oxide is reduced at the metal-oxide interface. This facilitates solid-state sintering, as well as wetting of the underlying metal by sintering liquids, when these are present. The optimum magnesium concentration is approximately 0.1 to 1.0 wt pct, but this is dependent on the volume of oxide and, hence, the particle size, as well as the sintering conditions. Small particle-size fractions require proportionally more magnesium than large-size fractions do.     

Friction Stir Welding of Stainless Steel to Al Alloy: Effect of Thermal Condition on Weld Nugget Microstructure

Joining of dissimilar materials is always a global challenge. Sometimes it is unavoidable to execute multifarious activities by a single component. In the present investigation, 6061 aluminum alloy and 304 stainless steel were joined by friction stir welding (FSW) at different tool rotational rates. Welded joints were characterized in optical and scanning electron microscopes. Reaction products in the stirring zone (SZ) were confirmed through X-ray diffraction. Joint strength was evaluated by tensile testing. It was found that the increment in average heat input and temperature at the weld nugget (WN) facilitated iron enrichment near the interface. Enhancement in the concentration of iron shifted the nature of intermetallics from the Fe₂Al₅ to Fe-rich end of the Fe-Al binary phase diagram. The peak microhardness and ultimate tensile strength were found to be maxima at the intermediate tool rotational rate, where Fe₃Al and FeAl₂ appeared along with Fe₂Al₅.     

The relationship between toughness and microstructure in Fe-high Mn binary alloys

The influence of Mn content on the ductile-brittle transition in 16 to 36 wt pct Mn steels was investigated and interpreted in light of the evolving microstructure. It was found that when hcp ε martensite is present in the as-quenched condition or forms during deformation, it lowers the toughness. In 25Mn steel, the stress concentrations at e plate intersections result in the formation of planar void sheets along the {111}_γ planes. The deformation-induced α’ martensite in 16 to 20 pct Mn alloys enhances the toughness, but leads to a ductile-to-brittle transition at low temperatures that is due to the intrusion of an intergranular fracture mode. Binary alloys with greater than 31 pct Mn also fracture in an intergranular mode at 77 K although the impact energy remains quite high. Auger spectroscopy of the fracture surfaces shows no evidence of significant impurity segregation, which suggests the importance of slip heterogeneity in controlling intergranular fracture in these alloys.     

Effect of heat treatment on the superplasticity of magnesium alloys

A necessary microstructural condition for the manifestation of the effect of superplasticity in alloys is a small grain size (d < 10 μm). The ingots of commercial magnesium alloys have a very coarse cast structure with d > 100 μm. We have studied the regimes of heat treatment of such materials in AZ91, AE42, QE22, and ZRE1 alloys with a purpose of obtaining a fine-grained structure. The optimum temperature of overaging of quenched magnesium alloys lies between 300 and 350°C. After hot pressing of heat-treated alloys, the average grain size is 6.4 (AZ91), 6.2 (AE42), 1.2 (ZRE1), and 0.7 (QE22) μm. The best characteristics of superplasticity are manifested by the ZRE1 and QE22 alloys with a relative elongation of 750% and strain-rate sensitivity m = 0.75 at T = 420°C and strain rate \(\dot \varepsilon \) = 3 × 10^?4 s^?1. Under these conditions, the AZ91 and AE42 alloys have δ ≤ 260% and m = 0.45.     

Interactions in Molten Aluminum (Silicon) ― Boron Alloys

Isoperibolic calorimetry has been used to determine the partial and integral enthalpies of mixing for liquid alloys in the binary systems aluminum (silicon) boron at 1873 K. Those enthalpies are small exothermic quantities, which agree with published data. The enthalpies of mixing have also been calculated from the _f H ₂₉₈ of the metal borides. The concentration dependence has been determined for these enthalpies in binary alloys in the nontransition metal boron systems.     

Grain Coarsening Behavior of Mg-Al Alloys with Mischmetal Addition

Small addition of mischmetal （MM） into aluminum alloys can lead to grain refinement. However, it is still uncertain whether the same effect applies to Mg-Al alloys. This work indicated that small amount of mischmetal addition ranging from 0.1% to 1.2% （mass fraction） did not cause grain refinement in Mg-Al alloys. On the contrary, they tended to coarsen the grains. When added into Mg-Al alloys, MM reacted preferentially with Al to form Al11 MM3 phase. As Al11 MM3 phase mainly distributed within α-Mg grains than at grain boundaries, it had little effect in restricting grain growth. In addition, MM reacted with Al8（Mn, Fe）5 or ε-AlMn particles to form Al-MM-Mn compounds, thus it reduced the amount of heterogeneous nuclei in the melt and resulted in remarkable grain coarsening.     

Structure and properties of rapidly solidified dispersion-strengthened titanium alloys: Part I. Characterization of dispersoid distribution,structure, and chemistry

The feasibility of developing dispersion-strengthened powder metallurgy Ti alloys was determined in Ti-RE (RE = Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, La, Nd, or Y) alloys prepared by rapid solidification processing. The alloys were produced by electron-beam melting and splat quenching. Dispersoid precipitation and growth were studied as functions of annealing temperature, 700 to 1000 °C, for annealing times between 5 and 50,000 minutes. Dispersoid diameters, spacings, compositions, and crystal structures were characterized by transmission and scanning electron microscopy, X-ray and electron diffraction, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, and scanning Auger microscopy. Two classes of dispersoid coarsening behavior at temperatures below theβ-transus were identified. In Ti-Ce, Ti-Gd, and Ti-Nd alloys, equilibrium rare earth sesquioxide (RE₂O₃) dispersoids form early in the annealing process and coarsen rapidly to > 1 μm diameter. The Ti-Nd alloys additionally contain large volume fractions of small (< 100 nm diameter) dispersoids. In the other Ti-RE alloys, dispersoids identified as Ti-RE-O-C compounds coarsen relatively slowly. Ti-Er is the most promising of the investigated systems for application in a multicomponent dispersion-strengthened alloy because long-time annealing at 700 to 800 °C produces stable dispersoids of 50 to 150 nm average diameter and 300 to 600 nm inter-particle spacing.     

Effect of Welding Current and Time on the Microstructure,Mechanical Characterizations,and Fracture Studies of Resistance Spot Welding Joints of AISI 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel

This article aims at investigating the effect of welding parameters, namely, welding current and welding time, on resistance spot welding (RSW) of the AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel sheets. The influence of welding current and welding time on the weld properties including the weld nugget diameter or fusion zone, tensile-shear load-bearing capacity of welded materials, failure modes, energy absorption, and microstructure of welded nuggets was precisely considered. Microstructural studies and mechanical properties showed that the region between interfacial to pullout mode transition and expulsion limit is defined as the optimum welding condition. Electron microscopic studies indicated different types of delta ferrite in welded nuggets including skeletal, acicular, and lathy delta ferrite morphologies as a result of nonequilibrium phases, which can be attributed to a fast cooling rate in the RSW process. These morphologies were explained based on Shaeffler, WRC-1992, and pseudo-binary phase diagrams. The optimum microstructure and mechanical properties were achieved with 8-kA welding current and 4-cycle welding time in which maximum tensile-shear load-bearing capacity or peak load of the welded materials was obtained at 8070 N, and the failure mode took place as button pullout with tearing from the base metal. Finally, fracture surface studies indicated that elongated dimples appeared on the surface as a result of ductile fracture in the sample welded in the optimum welding condition.