Friction Stir Processed AA5182-O and AA6111-T4 Aluminum Alloys. Part 2: Tensile Properties and Strain Field Evolution

In this second part, a state-of-the-art digital image correlation (DIC) technique was used to compute true stress-true strain curves beyond diffuse necking for friction stir processed AA5182-O and AA6111-T4 aluminum alloys. Of particular interest were differences in key tensile properties, such as initial yield point, and ultimate tensile strength, between the base and friction stir processed materials. Tensile coupons cut from the same material used to investigate crystallographic texture via the electron backscatter diffraction technique in Part 1, were strained to failure in a miniature tensile stage. The evolution of two-dimensional strain fields in both the base and friction stir processed materials was explored with incremental and cumulative strain maps computed from digital grids superimposed on each image after testing was completed. The impact of friction stir processing on strain localization just prior to fracture was revealed through changes in incremental strain map contour profiles. It is suggested that grain size refinement due to friction stir processing has a prominent effect on strength, while texture plays a secondary role. This article was presented at Materials Science & Technology 2006, Innovations in Metal Forming symposium held in Cincinnati, OH, October 15-19, 2006.     

有限元模拟预测AA6111合金半连续铸件的热裂敏感性（英文）

为了预测凝固过程中的热裂敏感性(HTS)并提高铝合金铸件的质量,采用直接有限元(FE)方法建立AA6111的本构方程。通过有限元模型和热撕裂准则的耦合,建立用于工业AA6111合金半连续铸造的热撕裂模型。将此模型应用于实际制造过程,表征铸造速度、底部冷却、二次冷却以及几何形状变化对HTS的影响。结果表明,铸坯的HTS随着速度和铸坯半径的增大而增加,而随着底部界面传热系数或二次水冷却速率的增大而降低。该模型展示出在模拟热裂引发时结合最大孔隙率的能力,这将对优化铸造条件和化学成分以达到HTS最小化从而控制铸造质量产生重大影响。     

Friction Stir Processed AA5182-O and AA6111-T4 Aluminum Alloys. Part 1: Electron Backscattered Diffraction Analysis

The present article is the first part in a two-part series in which crystallographic texture developed during friction stir processing of AA5182-O and AA6111-T4 is characterized and its impact on tensile properties explored. For the texture measurements, coupons were cut from the friction stir processed zone at selected orientations relative to the direction of tool translation. Texture was characterized with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) in a scanning electron microscope. Measurements were made at key positions along the coupon surfaces and texture differences between the two friction stir processed Al alloys are discussed in detail. Grain size variations were also measured in both the base and friction stir processed materials and subsequently compared. In part 2, a state-of-art digital image correlation technique is used to investigate tensile properties of both friction stir processed Al alloys. The impact of crystallographic texture on mechanical properties is also explored in this latter part. This article was presented at Materials Science & Technology 2006, Innovations in Metal Forming symposium held in Cincinnati, OH, October 15-19, 2006.     

Design and evaluation of an enhanced constrained rod casting mould for experimental characterisation of hot tearing in aluminium casting alloys

The most popular mould configuration for hot tearing evaluation of aluminium alloys, the Constrained Rod Casting (CRC) design, was evaluated via computer modelling. Filling patterns, heat flows, and shrinkage areas were assessed using the existing published design, and improvements in the design were generated. A mould of the improved design or Enhanced Constrained Rod Casting (ECRC) was fabricated and successfully used to evaluate the hot tearing tendencies of A206.2 and A380 die casting alloys. The ECRC mould reduced fill time and increased uniform filling of the constrained rods, which resulted in more uniform solidification rates for all the constrained rods. The ECRC mould and novel measurement technique predicted hot tearing in real time of A206.2 and A380 die casting alloys at initial pouring temperatures of 700, 760, and 800 °C. The A206.2 alloy exhibited hot tearing characteristics at the measurement rod while A380 did not show any hot cracking defects.     

Hot tearing in polycrystalline Ni-based IN738LC superalloy: Influence of Zr content

Zirconium is always present in Ni base superalloys as it enhances their creep properties. In the present study, the influence of very small Zr additions, 100–400 ppm, i.e. 0.01–0.04 wt.%, on hot tearing of IN738LC superalloy is experimentally investigated using dedicated turbine blade castings. Although the Zr content remains very small, it has a strong effect on hot tearing tendency. Microstructure of hot tear in as-cast samples reveal that grain size and secondary dendrite arm spacing have no significant effect on hot tearing. On the other hand eutectic phase volume fraction and its dispersion or spreading along grain boundaries drastically affect the hot tearing propensity and strongly increase with increasing amounts of Zr. Hence grain coalescence becomes impossible at grain boundaries covered with eutectic phase films. With increasing Zr content, gain coalescence between two distinct grains with no interdendritic phase requires more undercooling. Coalescence is retarded and occurs deeper in the mush zone, i.e. at lower temperatures resulting in a higher sensitivity to hot tearing. Finally, it is shown that a reduction of Zr content to 0.02 wt.% is required to fully suppress hot tearing in polycrystalline IN738LC blades.     

AA7075高强铝合金热冲压流变行为本构模型对比研究

在热冲压过程中,AA7075高强铝合金板料经充分固溶后移入室温模具进行冲压成形并淬火。为表征AA7075铝合金在热冲压工艺中的变形行为,在温度200~480℃、应变速率0.01~10s-1范围内进行了高温拉伸试验。基于Arrhenius类型本构模型、Johnson-Cook模型以及Zerilli-Armstrong模型提出了多种修正本构模型,并应用实验所获流变曲线进行了拟合。提出的修正模型通过将模型参数表示为应变、应变速率及温度相关的多项式函数耦合了应变、应变速率及温度对流变应力的影响,并通过均方误差(MSE)以及相关系数R值对模型流变应力预测准确性进行了评价。结果表明,修正的Johnson-Cook模型能够更加准确的预测AA7075高温流变行为。     

Hot tearing susceptibility of MgZn4.5YxZr0.5 alloys and mechanism

The hot tearing susceptibility of MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5)(x = 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6) alloys was evaluated using ClyneDavies' theoretical model and a constrained rod casting(CRC) apparatus equipped with a load cell and data acquisition system. The results obtained from these two approaches were in good agreement, illustrating that the hot tearing susceptibility of the investigated alloys is in the order of MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5) MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5) MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5) MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5) MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5). The microstructure and morphology of hot tearing regions were observed by means of X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The function curves on variation of contraction force and temperature versus time were recorded by a computer during solidification of the MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5) alloys in a T type mold after A/D(Analog to digital) conversion. Results show that both the amount and morphology of the second phases have a great relationship with the hot tearing susceptibility. But the former plays a more important role on that of MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5) alloys. The role of low-melting point eutectic phases on the hot tearing susceptibility of MgZn_(4.5)Y_xZr_(0.5) alloys changes gradually with different Y contents. When Y ≤ 1wt.%, it is mainly a damaging effect on intergranular bonding force; when Y 1wt.%, it is mainly an intergranular feeding effect on formed separated dendrites.     

Hot tearing behaviors and in-situ thermal analysis of Mg-7Zn-xCu-0.6Zr alloys

Thermal analysis was used to investigate the microstructural evolution of Mg-7Zn-xCu-0.6Zr alloys during solidification. The effect of Cu content (0, 1, 2 and 3, mass fraction, %) on the hot tearing behavior of the Mg-7Zn-xCu-0.6Zr alloys was investigated with a constrained rod casting (CRC) apparatus, equipped with a load sensor and a data acquisition system. The thermal analysis results of Mg-7Zn-xCu-0.6Zr alloy revealed that the alloy consisted of two distinct phases: α-Mg and MgZn₂. Three distinct peaks were observed in the alloys with Cu addition, which were identified as α-Mg, MgZnCu and MgZn₂. In addition, the reaction temperature of α-Mg decreased and the reaction temperatures of MgZn₂ and MgZnCu increased as the Cu content increased. The experimental results of hot tearing demonstrated that the addition of Cu significantly reduced the hot tearing susceptibility (HTS) of Mg-7Zn-xCu-0.6Zr alloys due to the higher eutectic temperature and the shorter solidification temperature region.     

大规格7050铝合金圆锭熔铸工艺参数优化的数值模拟

采用某铝业公司提供的铸造工艺参数,基于温度场、应力场和流场三场的耦合系统研究了铸造工艺参数设置对熔铸过程的影响。结果显示,铸造速度对应力场影响非常大,而铸造温度、水流量对应力场的影响则不太明显。针对800 mm铸锭热裂问题,通过数值模拟对原工艺参数进行了优化。     

Transient thermal stress development in direct chill cast ingots with application of a wiper

A full 3D transient model of direct chill casting is developed to predict the thermal stress during the startup phase for AA5182. Simulations show that tensile stress starts to develop at ingot surface and gradually migrates to ingot center. By varying the position of wiper below the mold, the maximum residual stress in the ingot center is reduced by up to 35% compared to that without the use of a wiper. The closer the wiper is inserted below the mold, the larger is the stress reduction effect, but at a greater risk of remelting surfaces below the wiper. In order to prevent this, forced-convection air cooling is recommended on ingot surface below the wiper. The current study recommends application of a moving wiper, from a lower to the bottom of the sump, to combine the benefit of reducing thermal stress and centerline segregation without surface bleeding-out.     

铸件热裂缺陷预测及其工艺优化

以解决铸件热裂为目的，以生产中遇到的典型铸件为例，利用ProCAST铸造模拟软件，对不同铸件结构和不同浇注工艺条件下的铸件热裂缺陷形成倾向进行了系统研究，得到了优化后的铸件结构和铸造工艺，并进行了生产验证，其结果基本吻合。     

Nonmechanical criteria proposed for prediction of hot tearing sensitivity in 2024 aluminum alloy

Two theoretical criteria represented by Katgerman, and Clyne and Davies for prognosticating hot tearing sensitivity were compared. Both unrefined and grain-refined samples of Al2024 alloy were solidified at various cooling rates ranging from 0.4 to 17.5 °C/s. Thermal analysis was used to detect dendrite coherency point and temperature of eutectic reaction. Curves of solid and liquid fractions were plotted based on Newtonian method to determine hot tearing susceptible areas. The experimental results show that the most susceptible zone in which hot tearing can occur in Al2024 is where Al₂CuMg intermetallic compound forms as a eutectic phase at last stage of mushy-state interval. Also, both criteria are in a good agreement with each other at high cooling rates used in direct-chill casting process while Clyne and Davies' model is more acceptable to determine hot tearing tendency from low to medium cooling rates.     

Investigation of the Friction Stir Lap Welding of Aluminum Alloys AA 5182 and AA 6022

Friction stir lap welding of the similar and dissimilar aluminum alloys is investigated. AA 5182 and AA 6022 aluminum alloys (the widely used aluminum alloys for automobile applications) are selected for the feasibility studies. The friction stir lap welding shows that the placement of the aluminum alloys in the different orders over each other affect the final weld quality and its mechanical properties. The welding parameters such as rotational and traverse speeds and the penetration depth are key factors to affect the micro-structure soundness. The mechanical and the micro-structural characterization is performed on the joints formed with varying welding parameters and from the different order of placement of the AA 6022 and the AA 5182 sheets. The weld failure occurs on the advancing side during the peel tests indicating that the retreating side is relatively stronger. Measured temperatures indicate that the advancing side has higher developed temperature during the course of welding compared to the retreating side.     

Hot tearing behavior of NZ30K Mg alloy under progressive solidification

Progressive solidification is usually considered an effective strategy to reduce the hot tearing susceptibility of a cast component.In this study,special constrained plate castings with progressive changes in cross-section were designed,which enabled progressive solidification.The hot tearing behavior of a newly developed NZ30 K Mg alloy(Mg-3.0 Nd-0.2 Zn-Zr,wt.%)was studied under progressive solidification using various mold temperature distributions and constraint lengths.Of these,a homogeneous mold temperature distribution is found to be the best option to avoid hot tearing,followed by a local low mold temperature distribution(with a chiller),then a gradient mold temperature distribution.Unexpectedly,compared with the homogeneous mold temperature distribution,adding a chiller does not provide any further reduction in the hot tearing susceptibility of the NZ30 K Mg alloy.A high mold temperature and a short constraint length increase the hot tearing resistance of cast Mg alloys.Progressive solidification is not a sufficient and necessary condition to avoid the formation of hot tearing.The two key factors that determine the occurrence of hot tearing under progressive solidification are the maximum cooling rate and the constraint length.Decreasing these values can reduce the incidence of hot tearing.     

拉力在铸造铝硅合金热裂形成过程中的作用

利用A356合金研究拉力在热裂的形成及其断裂行为中的作用。利用一个新型的实验装置进行相关实验研究。该实验装置能够同时测量并采集受限试样在凝固过程中施加的拉力和温度的数据。这些数据可以用来研究热裂的萌生和扩展。研究了在不同加载速度下,固相率的演变和热裂的形成之间的定量关系。由实验结果可知,施加的拉力在热裂萌生初期起着复杂的作用。在合金凝固过程中,随着固相率的不断增加,拉力会逐渐增大直至最大值,然后急剧下降,此时试样出现裂纹并在拉力的持续作用下产生断裂。对于A356合金,产生早高温下产生断裂的临界应力是0．1MPa。由热裂纹的断口形貌可知,在凝固末期形成的晶间搭桥和液膜褶皱对热裂的形成起重要的作用。     

熔体氢含量对Al-Cu合金热裂行为的影响

Al-Cu合金具有较宽的凝固间隔,并且由于供给不足容易出现热裂和气孔缺陷。采用约束棒铸造（CRC）模具研究了氢含量对Al-xCu合金热裂敏感性（HTS）的影响。通过分析熔体中不同氢含量的Al-xCu合金的热裂敏感性值、断裂形态和微观结构,研究了孔隙形成对热裂行为的影响。结果表明,随着熔体氢含量的增加,合金在凝固后期由于晶粒粗化和液相供给不足,热裂敏感性明显增加。提出了一种基于孔隙率的热裂形成机制,以解释孔隙率和热裂之间的相互作用。     

合金元素对Al—Cu合金热裂倾向的影响

为寻求一种低热裂倾向的高强韧造铝合金材料,研究了Cu,Zr和V3种元素对Al-Cu合金热裂倾向的影响,结果表明,V明显降低材料的热裂倾向;Zr含量低时轻微增大合金的热裂倾向,含量高时强烈增大热裂倾向,在4．5％－5．5％范围内Cu增大热裂倾向,Zr和V对合金热裂倾向的不同影响在于V主要存在于晶内,而Zr则部分存在于晶界。     

增压涡轮用镍基高温合金的凝固特性和热裂倾向性

研究了增压涡轮用镍基高温合金K418和K419的凝固特性和热裂倾向性。同时研究了合金元素的偏析行为和析出相。结果表明,凝固末期多种强枝晶间偏析元素在液相中的偏聚导致K419合金的凝固行为较K418复杂。多种元素在枝晶间剩余液相中的偏聚导致K419合金的液相线极低。K419合金凝固过程中漫长的剩余液相期的存在严重削弱了枝晶间结合力,增加了其热裂倾向性。基于一种热裂敏感区模型提出热裂倾向性系数判据,K419合金的热裂倾向性系数高于K418合金。     

热送钢锭第一火开裂问题分析

本文针对热送钢锭第一火开裂率高的问题,用数理分析与钢加热学等理论进行了研究,找到了热送钢锭第一火开裂的主要外因,提出了相应的工艺措施,对降低热送钢锭第一火开裂率,节能降耗,提高质量,增加经济效益有重要意义。     

汽车用5182铝合金温变形行为及组织

通过单向温拉伸试验以及扫描电镜和透射电镜观察,研究了汽车用5182铝合金板在变形温度为323~573 K,应变速率为0.001~0.1 s-1条件下的流变行为及微观组织。结果表明,在变形温度≥448 K、应变速率.ε=0.001 s-1条件下,5182合金出现明显的峰值应力,而当应变速率0.01~0.1 s-1时,合金的流变应力呈现稳态;当应变速率.ε=0.001 s-1时,随着变形温度的升高,合金单向温拉伸断口由典型的混合型断裂特征演变成典型的韧性断裂特征,合金产生了动态再结晶。