German and Norwegian policy approach to residential buildings’ energy efficiency—a comparative assessment

Buildings in private and domestic use are responsible for about 30% of the global greenhouse gas emissions attributable mainly to their need for heating and cooling energy. This corresponds to about 40% of the global final energy consumption. Therefore, a viable implementation of building energy efficiency policies is inevitable to realize a transformation of the energy system to mitigate climate change. Within the building sector lies a huge potential for emission reduction consisting in the renovation of the existing building stock and climate-friendly building guidelines applicable to new constructions, both adapting CO₂-neutral technology solutions. However, as there are several different pathways leading to a decarbonized energy system, there is always the question which political and technological solutions are most efficient, effective, and feasible. This paper aims to analyze building efficiency policy measures and instruments and the related technological solutions in two front-runner countries of the energy transition, possessing different structural conditions: Germany and Norway. We hence apply a comparative approach which allows us to present and assess the policies in place. The paper answers three research questions: (1) Which policies prevail in Germany and Norway to foster the deployment of energy efficient and decarbonized solutions for residential buildings? (2) How do these policies respond to country-specific barriers to the energy transition in the building sector, and (3) What effects do they have on the actual implementation of technological and societal solutions? This research provides a new insight to the highly relevant topic of energy efficiency in buildings in the context of international Intended Nationally Determined Contribution benchmarking and discusses some unsolved trade-offs in the translation of the global climate governance into the national building sector.     

Exploring drivers of energy demand in Cyprus – Scenarios and policy options

This paper describes a new set of energy demand forecasts for the Republic of Cyprus up to the year 2040, which have been developed in support of the renewable energy roadmap that was prepared for national authorities by the International Renewable Energy Agency. The analysis takes into account national end-use data from the residential and tertiary sector that had not been exploited up to now. Four final energy demand scenarios with diverging assumptions were defined in this study, offering a wide range of possible outcomes up to 2040; in addition, four alternative scenarios were applied for sensitivity analysis. Two of these scenarios can be regarded as those continuing the trends of the recent past in Cyprus (prior to the economic and financial downturn of years 2011–2014). However, a more rigorous implementation of energy efficiency measures in buildings and transport, as defined in the fourth scenario of this study, is also realistic; despite its potential costs, it might allow Cyprus both to decrease its carbon emissions in line with the long-term EU decarbonisation targets, and to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels, thereby promoting energy efficiency as an important climate change adaptation measure.     

UK energy policy – Stuck in ideological limbo?

Energy policy in the UK has undergone a paradigm change over recent decades – from the free market stance of the 1990s to the more interventionist measures of the 21st century. However, the two approaches have not been reconciled – even as the Government intervenes, it reaffirms its goal of creating more competitive markets. The contradictions are most apparent with electricity, which has been the main focus of intervention to date, in line with decarbonisation strategy. Investment is dependent on Government support, which changes in response to circumstances, creating uncertainty and undermining the basis of market operation – so leading to the need for more intervention. The future for other sources – natural gas, nuclear power and carbon capture and storage in particular – remains unclear. The Government risks getting the worst of both worlds – without the coordination and direction which could come from a centralised approach or the efficiencies and innovation which might emerge from a more consistent market based policy. Unless a fuller policy statement, expected later this year, can clarify matters, UK energy policy will not be fit for purpose and will fail to meet its key goals, of economic effectiveness, environmental protection and energy security.     

UK energy policy ambition and UK energy modelling—fit for purpose?

Aiming to lead amongst other G20 countries, the UK government has classified the twin energy policy priorities of decarbonisation and security of supply as a “centennial challenge”. This viewpoint discusses the UK's capacity for energy modelling and scenario building as a critical underpinning of iterative decision making to meet these policy ambitions. From a nadir, over the last decade UK modelling expertise has been steadily built up. However extreme challenges remain in the level and consistency of funding of core model teams — critical to ensure a full scope of energy model types and hence insights, and in developing new state-of-the-art models to address evolving uncertainties. Meeting this challenge will facilitate a broad scope of types and geographical scale of UK's analytical tools to responsively deliver the evidence base for a range of public and private sector decision makers, and ensure that the UK contributes to global efforts to advance the field of energy-economic modelling.     

Energy conservation measures in buildings heated by district heating – A local energy system perspective

The extensive energy use in the European building sector creates opportunities for implementing energy conservation measures (ECMs) in residential buildings. If ECM are implemented in buildings that are connected to a district heating (DH) system, the operation of DH plants may be affected, which in turn may change both revenue and electricity production in cogeneration plants. In this study a local energy system, containing a DH supplier and its customer, has been analysed when implementing three ECMs: heat load control, attic insulation and electricity savings. This study is unique since it analyses economic and CO₂ impacts of the ECMs in both a user and a supplier perspective in combination with a deregulated European electricity market. Results show that for the local energy system electricity savings should be prioritised over a reduction in DH use, both from an economic and a global CO₂ perspective. For the DH supplier attic insulation demonstrates unprofitable results, even though this measure affects the expensive peak load boilers most. Heat load control is however financially beneficial for both the DH supplier and the residences. Furthermore, the relation between the fixed and variable DH costs is highlighted as a key factor for the profitability of the ECMs.     

Hydropower–water and renewable energy in Turkey: Sources and policy

Turkey's energy consumption has been growing much faster than its production. It forces Turkey to make a rapid action to supply energy demand. From the viewpoint of primary energy sources (petroleum and natural gas), Turkey is not a rich country, but it has an abundant hydropower potential to be used for generation of electricity. Hydropower is the most important kind of renewable, sustainable energy and a proven technology for electricity generation. The aim of this paper is to discuss sources and policy of hydropower, water and renewable energy in Turkey and compares the hydropower application with Europe.     

On the physics of power,energy and economics of renewable electric energy sources – Part I

Environmental concerns have increasingly led to the installation of Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) despite the fact that they are recognized as expensive. Innovative efforts within the area are beset with difficulties [1], and they are at risk of producing misdirected or insignificant improvements in terms of the cost effectiveness of total energy conversion systems. This paper investigates how RETs can be evaluated, in terms of economy and engineering solutions, by studying the fundamental physics of renewable energy sources and how it matches with the RETs. This match is described by the “Degree of Utilization”. The findings indicate that new innovations should focus on the possible number of full loading hours. RETs that are correctly matched to their energy source generate a higher amount of electric energy and have a higher potential of becoming more competitive. In cases where this aspect has been ignored, leading to relatively small degrees of utilization, it can be understood as an engineering mismatch between installed power, converted energy, and the fundamental physics of the renewable energy sources. Since there is a strong and possibly biased support for so-called mature RETs and already existing solutions, a clarification of how fundamental physical laws affect the cost of investments and payback of investments is needed. The present paper is part I out of II and it focuses on the difference between power and energy and the physics of different energy sources and their utilization.     

The energy sector in Eritrea—institutional and policy options for improving rural energy services

The energy consumption patterns and in particular, those of the rural household and small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Eritrea are assessed. Eritrea's total final energy consumption in 1998 was estimated to be around 619,580 toe, of which 68% was consumed by the household sector, 16% by the commercial/public sector, 13% by transport and 3% by industry. The sources of energy were 66.3% biomass based (fuelwood, dung, charcoal, agri-residue), 31% oil products and 2% electricity. It is also noted that 98% of the rural population and 20% of the urban residents do not have access to electricity. Over 80% of the energy needs of rural enterprises is met by biomass or animate/human labour. To analyse the root problems hindering the wider dissemination of modern energy services to rural areas, two key hypotheses related to policy and institutional framework were selected and tested. The findings indicate that Eritrea has general energy policies pertaining to the development of electricity, oil and renewable energy sub-sectors for the benefit of the public and the economy. The absence of sharply focussed, pro-rural energy policy and/or their policy instruments has been observed. The key problem is, however, the weakness in implementation of rural energy projects and programmes. This is mainly due to inappropriate institutional structure and/or gaps in the structure, in addition to lack of corporate culture; poor incentives for workers; and, poor linkages among the various stakeholders concerned in energy for rural development.     

Drivers and barriers to rural electrification in Tanzania and Mozambique – Grid-extension,off-grid,and renewable energy technologies

Mozambique and Tanzania are countries with very low rural electrification (RE) rates as only about 5% of the rural population use electricity. Despite efforts to extend the national grid in rural areas, most remote areas will not be reached within the foreseeable future. Off-grid (decentralized) electricity grids are seen as a complement and forerunner to the national grid, making electricity available many years in advance and creating demand and a customer base. Renewable energy sources are plentiful in the region and may be particularly useful for off-grid systems. The countries' power sectors are undergoing interesting changes with potential to speed up the pace of RE. However, there are significant barriers to effective RE by grid-extension and off-grid installations.In this study, the specific drivers and barriers for RE in Mozambique and Tanzania are explored across a spectrum of involved actors. By qualitative methodology, drivers and barriers were first identified through literature survey, then data was collected both in semi-structured interviews carried out with power sector actors from national to local level and in visits to off-grid electricity users in Tanzania and Mozambique during eight weeks in 2010. Findings illustrate generic, country-specific, and renewable-energy-technology-specific drivers and barriers to grid and off-grid rural electrification, as perceived by different power sector actors. Results were validated and discussed with three external specialists. Drivers and barriers strongly relate to the roles of national and local actors in planning and implementation. The main drivers are political ambitions based on expected growth of demand, but bottom-up drivers such as local initiatives by industries or churches also exist. The barriers are related to lack of access to human capital, to difficulties in planning and donor dependency, to low rural markets and little interest from private sector, and to more straightforward technical matters such as difficulties with installing electric equipment in traditional buildings. Although off-grid systems and renewable energy sources are recognized by the actors, specific barriers to these systems are related to young organizations responsible for implementation and to guilt-by-association with dysfunctional diesel-based off-grid systems.     

Is blending of energy and climate policy instruments always desirable?

In this paper we present an application of the Energy and Climate Policy Interactions (ECPI) decision support tool for the qualitative ex-ante assessment of ten (10) combinations of energy and climate policy instruments addressing energy end users. This tool consists of four (4) methodological steps, where policymakers set preferences that determine the outcome of policy instruments interactions. Initially, interacting policy instruments are broken down in into their design characteristics, referring to parameters that describe functions of each instrument. Policymakers can express in a merit order the significance they attribute to these characteristics when designing a policy instrument. Evaluation criteria for assessing these instruments individually are used and policymakers can assign weights on them expressing their preferences. An overall assessment of combined policy instruments based on these steps have illustrated policy interactions added value per criterion and overall. The user of the tool takes useful insights as regards the most preferable combinations of policy instruments, the less preferable ones and those who are conflicting.     

Wind energy assessment and wind farm simulation in Triunfo – Pernambuco,Brazil

This paper presents a wind energy assessment and a wind farm simulation in the city of Triunfo in the state of Pernambuco in the northeast region of Brazil. The wind data were obtained from the SONDA (Sistema de Organização Nacional de Dados Ambientais) project’s meteor station (wind speed, wind direction and temperature) at both heights of 50 m during a period of time of 30 months. The Triunfo wind characterization and wind power potential assessment study shows an average wind speed (V) of 11.27 m/s (predominant Southeast wind direction), an average wind power density (P/A_T) of 1.672 W/m² and Weibull parameters shape (K) and scale (A) respectively equal to 2.0 and 12.7 m/s. Those values demonstrate an important wind potential in this region for future wind farm prospection. The wind farm (TRI) was simulated by using 850 kW wind turbines given a total of 20 MW installed. The simulated results show(s) an AEP (annual energy produced) of 111.4 GWh, a capacity factor (C_f) of 62% and a total of 5.462 h of operation by year (full load hours). The economical simulated results show(s) a Pay-back of 3 years Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 47% and Net Present Value (NPV) of 85.506 k€ (both in a period of time of 20 years).     

The role of coal in energy policy and sustainable development of Turkey: Is it compatible to the EU energy policy?

This paper aims to assess the current and future role of coal in energy strategy of Turkey, and evaluates the compatibility of policies to the EU energy policy and strategy. Coal is regarded as the most important indigenous energy source in Turkey together with hydropower to strengthen the supply security of the country. Turkish government set targets to fully utilize coal reserves of the country in next decades. However, the country is also in the process of becoming an EU Member State, hence, it is expected that the energy policies have to comply with the EU. Moreover, Turkey ratified Kyoto Protocol in 2009, thus the country should limit CO₂ emission together with other greenhouse gases. The probable obstacles that Turkey may face due to the utilization of coal were determined as CO₂ emissions, lack of technology and application in Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) and health and safety issues. It is concluded that coal is a very important domestic energy source for Turkey but new policies have to be developed and adopted immediately, and more realistic targets for the country should be set accordingly.     

Energy and behavioral impacts of integrative retrofits for residential buildings: What is at stake for building energy policy reforms in northern China?

Based upon the results from extensive building monitoring and surveys on occupant’s behaviors in a representative nine-story apartment building in northern China, building energy simulations were performed to evaluate the impacts of integrative retrofits implemented. Integrative retrofits required by the newer building energy standard produced significant heating-energy savings (i.e., 53%) when compared with baseline buildings commonly built in early 1980s. Taking into account district-heating-system upgrades as part of integrative retrofit measures, a representative apartment building was 66% more efficient than the baseline building. Contrary to expectation, little behavioral change was found in response to the provisions of monetary incentive, billing-method reform, or metering of heating energy use in individual apartment units. Yet this paper identified sizable energy savings potential if occupants’ behavioral changes were to actually happen. This indicates that provisions of financial incentives or individual metering were insufficient for triggering substantial behavioral changes leading toward more energy savings in the current buildings. It is recommended that innovative energy policies, technology upgrades, and education would be needed to promote behavioral changes toward additional energy savings. Finally, measures and strategies to further enhance thermal integrity criteria (e.g., insulations of roof and balcony) are recommended in China’s future building energy policy reforms.     

How can the integration of renewable energy and power-to-gas benefit industrial facilities? From techno-economic,policy, and environmental assessment

This paper applies a mixed integer linear programming model developed in GAMS to simulate the integration of Power-to-Gas infrastructure into an industrial manufacturer's energy system subject to the existing thermal and electrical energy demands, as well as a third hydrogen energy profile. This work is novel in that it assesses the challenges and economic incentives available to make feasible the installation of a hydrogen-based energy storage systems within the Province of Ontario from a techno-economic, policy and environmental perspectives.The energy hub analyzed in this work uses electricity from the power grid and solar PVs to meet the manufacturer's demands, while converting the excess to hydrogen gas, which is used across an array of pathways to generate revenue. ThisThis includes a blend ofof hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), hydrogen for forklifts, and the direct injection of hydrogen into the facility's natural gas, adding renewable content to the heating, and manufacturing processes. Our primary objective was to implement a safe design that minimizes capital and operating costs, resulting in a favorable business case for producing hydrogen, and providing ancillary grid services. However, Power-to-Gas creates a net-emission reduction that can be used not only to sell emission allowances in the provincial carboncarbon tax program for up to $30/t-CO_2eq but to assist the Company in achieving their strategic emission reduction targets.Installation of the selected Power-to-Gas system would require a total capital investment of $2,620,448 with the electrolyzers and solar panels accounting for 41% and 17% of the capital costs, respectively. The compressors will account for most of the operating costs which total $237,653 annually. Within the energy hub, 76,073 kg-H₂ has been produced per year for end-use applications. A sensitivity analysis was performed by varying both hydrogen and carbon credit price which predicted a potentialpotential CO₂ offset of 2359.7 tonne/yr with a payback period of as little as 2.8 years.     

Towards a low carbon energy future – Renewable energy cooperation between Germany and Norway

Renewable energy is a cornerstone of German climate change policies. Germany has adopted particularly ambitious renewable energy targets, and is now implementing an Energiewende – a transition to a nuclear-free and low-carbon energy system. The transition could be eased through European cooperation. This article investigates the economic, political, environmental and technological factors that act as drivers and barriers to renewable energy cooperation between Germany and Norway. The article finds that German actors see Norwegian electricity as a means for enhancing the stability of their electricity system as Germany shifts to a greater reliance on renewables. In Norway the picture is more mixed. Norwegian state-owned electricity producers and grid operators are interested in cooperation largely out of profit motives, but expect Germany to create a favorable environment for investors. Energy-intensive industries and consumers on the other hand, are afraid that more electricity cooperation with Germany will raise electricity prices. The Norwegian environmental movement is split on the issue. Parts of the movement see renewable energy cooperation as an important step towards a European low-carbon energy future. Nature and outdoor organizations, however, argue that new renewable energy infrastructure, including pumped-storage hydropower, will result in major environmental impacts. If cooperation is to be achieved, these economic and environmental concerns will have to be taken seriously.     

The application of contrast explanation to energy policy research: UK nuclear energy policy 2002–2012

This paper advances the application of the methodology, contrast explanation, to energy policy research. Research in energy policy is complex and often involves inter-disciplinary work, which traditional economic methodologies fail to capture. Consequently, the more encompassing methodology of contrast explanation is assessed and its use in other social science disciplines explored in brief. It is then applied to an energy policy research topic—in this case, nuclear energy policy research in the UK. Contrast explanation facilitates research into policy and decision-making processes in energy studies and offers an alternative to the traditional economic methods used in energy research. Further, contrast explanation is extended by the addition of contested and uncontested hypotheses analyses. This research focuses on the methods employed to deliver the new nuclear programme of the UK government. In order to achieve a sustainable nuclear energy policy three issues are of major importance: (1) law, policy and development; (2) public administration; and (3) project management. Further, the research identifies that policy in the area remains to be resolved, in particular at an institutional and legal level. However, contrary to the literature, in some areas, the research identifies a change of course as the UK concentrates on delivering a long-term policy for the nuclear energy sector and the overall energy sector.     

German Energiewende and the heating market – Impact and limits of policy

The German Energiewende envisages achieving a climate-neutral building stock in 2050 by means of two major pillars of regulation. First, residential buildings should consume 80% less primary energy and second; the remaining energy demand should be covered primarily with renewables. This paper simulates the future German heating market under different policy scenarios in order to evaluate the impact and limits of recent and conceivable policies. The investigation is based upon a dual model approach, linking a residential heating model to a discrete choice model. The major finding is that current regulations are not suitable for the achievement of governmental targets. Scenario calculations show that additional carbon emission reductions, triggered by the current regulatory regime, are falling short of expectations. In terms of economic efficiency, all calculated policy alternatives outperform the regulation currently in place. This allows to draw the conclusion that carbon emission reductions can be achieved without a major increase in cost. The model results highlight two policy implications. First, a rising mandatory share of renewables in the heating market is needed for target achievement and can be cost effectively. Second, renewable obligations for heating systems must include the existing building stock to achieve the postulated political targets.