A fast method for the generation of boundary conditions for thermal autoclave simulation

Manufacturing process simulation enables the evaluation and improvement of autoclave mold concepts early in the design phase. To achieve a high part quality at low cycle times, the thermal behavior of the autoclave mold can be investigated by means of simulations. Most challenging for such a simulation is the generation of necessary boundary conditions. Heat-up and temperature distribution in an autoclave mold are governed by flow phenomena, tooling material and shape, position within the autoclave, and the chosen autoclave cycle. This paper identifies and summarizes the most important factors influencing mold heat-up and how they can be introduced into a thermal simulation. Thermal measurements are used to quantify the impact of the various parameters. Finally, the gained knowledge is applied to develop a semi-empirical approach for boundary condition estimation that enables a simple and fast thermal simulation of the autoclave curing process with reasonably high accuracy for tooling optimization.     

Thermal press curing of advanced thermoset composite laminate parts

An alternative process to autoclaving, called Thermal Press Curing (TPC), is proposed, whereby an uncured composite laminate is pressed between a heated curing mold and customized rubber-faced mold that are designed to provide uniform temperature and pressure conditions. TPC was demonstrated by designing a complex 3-D ‘benchmark’ part shape, applying a simple computational algorithm to derive the required tool shapes, and fabricating the tooling. A comparative study was performed involving the benchmark part made from four plies of woven carbon/epoxy prepreg material. Identical laminates were pre-formed by double diaphragm forming and then cured and consolidated by autoclaving, Quickstep, and TPC using standard industry practice. Results of the study indicate that the TPC part is of similar quality as compared to those made by autoclaving and Quickstep, but, more importantly, requiring significantly less energy and resource consumption, lower cost (capital and recurring), and less preparation and cycle time.     

Three-dimensional process cycle simulation of composite parts manufactured by resin transfer molding

A process cycle of resin transfer molding (RTM) consists of two sequential stages, i.e. filling and curing stages. These two stages are interrelated in non-isothermal processes so that the curing stage is dominated by the resin flow as well as temperature and conversion distributions during the filling stage. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account both filling and curing stages to analyze the process cycle accurately. In this paper, a full three-dimensional process cycle simulation of RTM is performed. Full three-dimensional analysis is necessary for thick parts or parts having complex shape. A computer code is developed based on the control volume/finite element method (CV/FEM). The resulting computer code can provide information regarding flow progression and pressure field during mold filling; and temperature distribution and degree of cure distribution for a process cycle. The computer code can also be used for process cycle simulation of composite structures with complex geometry and with various molding strategies including switching injection strategy, multiple gate injection strategy and variable mold wall temperature. Numerical examples provided in the present work show the capabilities of the computer code in analyzing the process cycle.     

Use of Centroidal Voronoi Diagram to find optimal gate locations to minimize mold filling time in resin transfer molding

In Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) processes, liquid resin is injected into a dry reinforcement structure to create a composite part within given time limits. To reduce the fill time, resin may be injected into the mold through multiple gates. The minimum number of gates and their locations needs to be determined. To reduce the number of scenarios to be simulated, an iterative method is implemented for multiple-gate injection optimization. The inlet nodes on the mesh surface are used to generate a Voronoi Diagram of the mold geometry. Then the optimal Centroidal Voronoi Diagram (CVD) of the mold surface is searched iteratively. It is shown that the generation points associated with the optimal CVD correspond with the gate locations that yield the shortest fill time. The results are compared with exhaustive search and genetic algorithms results to illustrate the efficiency and accuracy of CVD method.     

Prediction and experimental verification of normal stress distributions on mould tools during Liquid Composite Moulding

Moulds for Liquid Composite Moulding (LCM) processes such as Resin Transfer Moulding and Compression RTM must withstand significant forces generated by resin injection and preform compaction. Prediction of tooling forces will allow optimisation of setup costs and time, and optimal selection of peripheral equipment (such as presses). A generic LCM simulation (SimLCM) is being developed with the capability to predict clamping forces and stress distributions acting on mould tools. Both mixed-elastic and viscoelastic reinforcement compaction models are implemented within SimLCM. A series of novel rigid tool LCM experiments were undertaken using a flat plate part geometry, and are compared to results generated by SimLCM. In general, predictions are very good, with the viscoelastic model providing significant improvement over the mixed-elastic model during phases involving stress relaxation within the reinforcement. Novel aspects of this work include measurement and prediction of spatial normal stress distributions and time dependent stress relaxation behaviour of reinforcements.     

Low-energy electron beam cured tape placement for out-of-autoclave fabrication of advanced polymer composites

The autoclave curing process for advanced polymer composites is labor and capital intensive, with the curing cost increasing dramatically by the growth in part size. In order to develop an out-of-autoclave (OOA) fabrication process for advanced polymer composites, a new process integrating automated tape placement with low-energy electron beam radiation curing was explored, by which in situ layer-wise curing of advanced composites can be achieved with the tape placement process. The irradiation process was optimized to get a homogenous curing, by tuning the electron beam dose-depth distribution in the prepreg material. Besides, the curing characteristics of the prepreg material by the low-energy electron beam irradiation was investigated and effect of exposure dose and post curing on curing degree, glass transition temperature (Tg) and interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) were characterized experimentally.     

Intelligent model-based control of preform permeation in liquid composite molding processes, with online optimization

Manufacturing of quality products via liquid molding processes such as Resin Transfer Molding (RTM), calls for a precise control of resin progression through fibrous preforms during mold fill. Lack of an effective process control leads to formation of dry spots and voids that are detrimental to product quality. This study presents the use of physics-based process simulations in real-time, towards a generalized process control. The implementation of process simulations for on-line model-predictive control requires that the simulation time scales be less than the time scales of the process. An artificial neural network trained using data from numerical process models is used to provide rapid, real-time process simulations for the model-based control. A simulated annealing algorithm, working interactively with the neural network process model, is used to derive optimal control decisions rapidly and on-the-fly. The controller performance is systematically demonstrated for several processing scenarios.     

纤维体积含量和富树脂对复合材料V型结构固化变形的影响

为研究模具因素对复合材料纤维体积含量、富树脂以及固化变形的影响,利用热压罐工艺完成了T700/QY9611复合材料V型结构成型试验,对其纤维体积含量、富树脂厚度以及回弹变形进行测量与研究。建立了考虑热载荷、树脂收缩载荷、模具接触、纤维体积含量以及富树脂等因素的复合材料回弹变形预测三维有限元分析模型,定量分析了纤维体积含量梯度和富树脂对回弹变形的影响。研究结果表明：使用阴模模具产生10.0%的纤维体积含量梯度和2.2 mm的富树脂,拐角半径增大后分别减小为6.8%和1.2 mm,模具材料的影响较小;使用阴模成型试验件变形增大21.0%,使用拐角半径较大的阴模,变形减小了9.6%,阴模模具主要通过纤维体积含量和富树脂影响回弹变形;模拟结果表明：V型构件的变形与纤维体积含量梯度和富树脂厚度呈正比例,10%的纤维体积含量梯度导致13.5%的变形差异,3.0 mm厚的富树脂会产生45.8%的变形差异。模拟结果与实验结果对比验证了模型的准确性。     

Influence of process parameters on the thermostamping of a [0/90]12 carbon/polyether ether ketone laminate

In this study, an experimental evaluation of the thermostamping process was made for a 3D part molded with a [0/90]₁₂ laminate composed of unidirectional carbon fiber/polyether ether ketone (CF/PEEK) plies. Using the Taguchi method, the effect of four operational parameters on the part thickness, interlaminar shear strength and the degree of crystallinity were investigated. These parameters are the preheating temperature in the oven, the mold temperature, the oven to mold transfer time and the stamping pressure. The results show that the mold temperature and stamping pressure have a significant effect on part consolidation. In addition, the interlaminar shear strength, measured at the base of the molded part, was higher for thinner parts compared to those having a greater thickness. These results were also confirmed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry analysis, which show that the degree of crystallinity is higher for thinner parts.     

Simultaneous gate and vent location optimization in liquid composite molding processes

In liquid composite molding processes the resin is injected into the mold cavity, which contains pre-placed reinforcement fabrics, through openings known as gates while the displaced air leaves the mold through openings called as vents. Gate and vent locations determine process outputs such as fill time, pressure requirements and whether the fabrics will be saturated entirely, a requirement for the success of the mold filling operation. Disturbances such as racetracking, in which the resin flows faster along the edges of the mold, further complicate the gate and vent selection process. In this study, a cascaded optimization algorithm, which is created by integration of branch and bound search and map-based exhaustive search, is proposed for simultaneous gate and vent location optimization in the presence of racetracking. Three case studies are presented to demonstrate usefulness of this methodology and the results are validated in a Virtual Manufacturing Environment.     

Three-dimensional reconstruction of resin flow using capacitance sensor data assimilation during a liquid composite molding process: A numerical study

Liquid composite molding (LCM) is a method to manufacture fiber-reinforced composites, where dry fabric reinforcement is impregnated with a resin in a molding apparatus. However, the inherent process variability changes resin flow patterns during mold filling, which in turn may cause void formation. We propose a method to reconstruct three-dimensional resin flow in LCM, without embedding sensors into the composite structure. Capacitance measured from pairs of electrodes on molding tools and the stochastic simulation of resin flow during an LCM process are integrated by a sequential data assimilation method based on the ensemble Kalman filter; then, three-dimensional resin flow and permeability distribution are estimated simultaneously. The applicability of this method is investigated by numerical experiments, characterized by different spatial distributions of permeability. We confirmed that changes in resin flow caused by spatial permeability variations could be captured and the spatial distribution of permeability could be estimated by the proposed method.     

Viscoelastic properties of multi-walled carbon nanotube/epoxy composites using two different curing cycles

Along with carbon nanotubes (CNT) morphology, impurity, and functionalization, polymer curing cycle is another important factor in determining the mechanical properties of the CNT/polymer composite samples. This work investigates the effect of two different curing cycles on mechanical and thermo-mechanical properties of the nanotube in the composite in order to optimize the curing condition in term of time and temperature. Nanocomposite samples were prepared by mixing multi-wall carbon nanotubes with epoxy resin using sonication method. The mechanical and viscoelastic properties of the resulting composite samples were evaluated by performing tensile and dynamic mechanical thermal analyses (DMTA) test. The results indicate that the mechanical and viscoelastic properties of pure epoxy and composite samples have been affected by the condition curing process. Concerning viscoelastic modeling, the COLE–COLE diagram has been plotted by the result of DMTA tests. These results show a good agreement between the Perez model and the viscoelastic behavior of the composite.     

模具对复合材料层合板固化成型影响的数值分析

针对复合材料层合结构与模具在固化工艺中的相互作用进行研究以提高制备精度。考虑摩擦力和粘结力在模具和制件接触界面间的共同作用,改进一种复合材料层合结构固化应变及应力情况的数值计算模型并与已有实验结果进行比较。引入弹簧单元建立固化工艺有限元模型,并对解析模型进行验证。最后通过解析模型对固化变形的影响因素进行探究。结果表明:所建立的解析预报模型具有较高的计算精度及一定的实用性;考虑模具作用的有限元模型可以更好地对层合板的变形趋势进行预报和分析。通过解析模型探究发现层合板长度、模具材料和表面情况均会对固化过程中的层间滑移产生影响,对工艺条件制定具有更好的指导意义。      

Fabrication,process simulation and testing of a thick CFRP component using the RTM process

The present article introduces the case of a CFRP con-rod beam, and describes many aspects regarding its production with the Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) process.The objective was to find the best process parameters of the injection and curing stages in order to manufacture the 20 mm thick CFRP part. The results are analysed in terms of the aesthetic aspect, the porosity and the mechanical properties of the final component.For the resin injection stage, results obtained from production experiences are presented, which have been performed with different set-ups, and simulations of the resin flow are used to analyse them. The results show that the resin flow during injection could be rather unpredictable, probably because of the fibre rearrangement and race tracking effects. Improvements in terms of aesthetic aspect and porosity of the part could be achieved by a process which included final compaction of the cavity by means of compressed air.Regarding the curing stage, the article presents the simulation results of a curing cycle, and it’s validation through DSC analysis of specimens obtained from the finished component.Finally, results of tensile mechanical tests are provided, performed on finished components produced by RTM and compared to others produced with the method of hand lay-up of pre-impregnated plies and curing in autoclave (Prepreg + Autoclave). The results confirm that it is possible to achieve components through RTM with comparable mechanical performance to those produced with the Prepreg + Autoclave process.     

The heating of polymer composites by electromagnetic induction – A review

Since the late 1980s a small number of research groups have been attracted with the idea of using induction heating technology for the processing of fibre reinforced polymer composites. Induction technology is suitable for the processing of thermoplastic and thermoset polymer materials but requires special susceptor additives (conductive materials) either in the form of structured fibres and fabric or particulate that can transform the electromagnetic energy into heat. This paper aims to summarize the principles of induction heating with respect to polymer composites processing taking a look first at material and equipment based process influences. State of the art applications and research activities are then reviewed, from thermoplastic composite welding, thermoset curing, selective material heating and fast mould heating technologies. Current simulation possibilities and available software tools have also been covered. Finally, some new ideas and possibilities for future developments in the field of polymer composites processing have been discussed.     

A yarn interaction model for circular braiding

Machine control data for the automation of the circular braiding process has been generated using previously published mathematical models that neglect yarn interaction. This resulted in a significant deviation from the required braid angle at mandrel cross-sectional changes, likely caused by an incorrect convergence zone length, in turn caused by this neglect. Therefore the objective is to use a new model that includes the yarn interaction, assuming an axisymmetrical biaxial process with a cylindrical mandrel and Coulomb friction. Experimental validation with carbon yarns and a 144 carrier machine confirms a convergence zone length decrease of 25% with respect to a model without yarn interaction for the case analyzed, matching the model prediction using a coefficient of friction of around 0.3.     

非等温RTM工艺的数值模拟

现代RTM生产工艺填充速度快、固化周期短,是一个非等温的生产过程。通过分析RTM工艺过程,考虑了能量守恒和固化反应,运用控制体/有限元格式和迎风格式,对整个过程进行离散,建立了相应的方程组,并编写了相应的代码,进行了数值模拟。结果表明,在采用较少单元网格的情况下,模拟结果与相关文献的结果一致。     

Identifying process parameters influencing gear runout

The hardening distortions with respect to base body, clutch teeth and helical gears are investigated for a serial‐produced main shaft gear of a 20NiCrMoS6‐4 steel. The influences of casting geometry, annealing heat treatment and stress relief annealing of blanks, as well as vertical and horizontal loading arrangements during case hardening, are studied. The concentricity, roundness and runout of clutch teeth and helical gears are measured in the soft machined, hardened and hard‐machined conditions. The Brinell hardness is measured on blanks obtained from different manufacturing routes showing differences in hardness and scatter. Stress relief annealing lowers the hardness and the scatter for all groups, but has no significant effect on distortions. The case depth, core hardness and surface hardness are measured after hardening. The study shows that the surface hardness correlates with the oil flow measured in the quench tank. The effect of casting geometry is stronger for the clutch teeth compared to the helical gears. For the clutch‐teeth roundness and runout, significantly lower values are found for square geometry compared to rectangular. It is also seen that the major part of the runout comes from roundness errors which are mainly induced by the hardening. Horizontal loading reduces roundness errors and runout but produces conical base‐bodies with worse backplane flatness.     

An adaptive geometry parametrization for aerodynamic shape optimization

An adaptive geometry parametrization is presented to represent aerodynamic configurations during shape optimization. This geometry parametrization technique is constructed by integrating the classical B-spline formulation with a knot insertion algorithm. It is capable of inserting control points into a given parametrization without modifying the geometry. Taking advantage of this technique, a shape optimization problem can be solved as a sequence of optimizations from the basic parametrization to more refined parametrizations. Additional control points are inserted based on criteria incorporating sensitivity analysis and geometric constraints. Example problems involving airfoil optimization and induced drag minimization demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach in comparison to uniformly refined parametrizations.     

Geometric parametrization and constrained optimization techniquesin the design of salient pole synchronous machines

The shape optimization of magnetic devices is efficiently performed with field calculation and sensitivity analysis based on the finite element method. Several sequential unconstrained optimization techniques are discussed and evaluated with respect to their application in engineering design. The optimization of the geometry of a salient pole generator so as to achieve a desired field configuration in the airgap is used as an illustrative numerical example to demonstrate the geometric parametrization technique, emphasize the importance of constraints in engineering design, and highlight the advantageous features of the augmented Lagrangian multiplier method for nonlinear constrained optimization. For the required geometric parametrization a recent novel use of structural mapping is extended to incorporate constrained optimization. The associated equations of structural mapping are presented