Broadband Laser-Ultrasonic Spectroscopy for Quantitative Characterization of Porosity Effect on Acoustic Attenuation and Phase Velocity in CFRP Laminates

This work aims at applying the method of broadband laser-ultrasonic spectroscopy for quantitative evaluation of the effect of isolated dispersed voids and additional extended interply delaminations on the acoustic attenuation and on the phase velocity in CFRP laminates. This method is based on the laser thermoelastic generation of broadband reference pulses of longitudinal ultrasonic waves in the specially designed source of ultrasound. The high-sensitivity piezoelectric transducer is used to detect these pulses propagating normal to the fiber plies in composite specimens. The laminate specimens investigated have different total porosity levels up to 10.5 % determined by the X-ray computer tomography. The resonance peak of the attenuation coefficient and the corresponding jump of the phase velocity are observed governed by the periodic layered structure of the specimens. The absolute maximum and the frequency bandwidth of the resonance attenuation peak depend on the total porosity level formed by the predominant type of imperfections, either of isolated spheroidal voids entrapped in epoxy layers or of extended interply delaminations. With an increase of the specimen’s total porosity dispersion of the phase velocity becomes noticeable in the low-frequency band before the resonance jump. The derived empirical relations between the total porosity level and the parameters of the frequency dependencies of the ultrasonic attenuation coefficient and of the phase velocity can be used for rapid quantitative characterization of the structure of CFRP laminates subject to different fabrication conditions.     

基于数值计算方法的CFRP层板二维细观形貌多孔隙超声散射衰减

针对超声波在含有多孔隙的复合材料中传播时,邻近孔隙超声散射波之间相互作用和散射衰减机制尚未澄清的问题,对孔隙率为7.47%的碳纤维增强复合材料（Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic,CFRP）采用时域有限差分方法进行数值计算,对比研究了CFRP层板中不同尺寸范围二维真实形貌孔隙及圆形孔隙对应的超声散射衰减系数。结果表明,对于横向尺寸m≤λ/8、λ/8_s普遍小于真实形貌孔隙的α_s。对于孔隙横向尺寸满足m<2λ/3的情况,大尺寸孔隙以及长条形孔隙的存在,整体上会使超声波散射衰减加重。     

Damage resistance and damage tolerance of hybrid carbon-glass laminates

The influence of impact energy and stacking sequence on the damage resistance and Compression After Impact (CAI) strength of Carbon and Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP and GFRP respectively) hybrid laminates is investigated. CAI tests demonstrate that, in comparison to fully CFRP laminates, hybrid laminates show increases in structural efficiency of up to 51% for laminates subject to a 12J impact and 41% for those subject to an 18J impact. Laminates displaying the highest stresses at failure are those that exploit stacking sequences and GFRP content to prevent delaminations from forming close to the outer surface of the laminate during impact. This favourable damage morphology inhibits both sublaminate-buckling-driven delamination propagation and anti-symmetric laminate buckling failures.     

Nondestructive Porosity Assessment of CFRP Composites with Spectral Analysis of Backscattered Laser-Induced Ultrasonic Pulses

The laser-ultrasonic method for nondestructive quantitative local porosity assessment for CFRP composites is proposed and realized experimentally for only one available flat surface of a specimen or a product. This method combines the laser thermoelastic generation and the high-sensitivity piezoelectric detection of broadband pulses of longitudinal ultrasonic waves and does not require the detection of the backwall echo ultrasonic signal. The generation and the detection of ultrasonic pulses is carried out with the specially designed laser-ultrasonic transducer, which allows one to obtain both the temporal profile and the frequency spectrum of a part of the ultrasonic signal backscattered by gas voids in a composite specimen. The frequency spectrum of backscattered ultrasonic pulses is analyzed for three sets of CFRP specimens with different epoxy matrix fractions and porosity. The empirical relation between porosity of CFRP specimens and the spectral power (structural noise power) of ultrasonic signals backscattered by voids is obtained for porosity values up to 0.15. This relation allows one to evaluate the local porosity from measured structural noise power both for CFRP specimens and products fabricated from the same composite material. The proposed laser-ultrasonic setup demonstrates a basis for a system of CFRP porosity assessment in field conditions. It can be very useful especially for nondestructive detection of structural changes of composite materials that will allow evaluation of products during their life time.     

Compressive behavior of concrete cylinders confined by narrow strips of CFRP with spacing

Application of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is one of the effective strengthening methods for structural members such as reinforced concrete columns and beams. However, air voids and debonds between CFRP and concrete due to poor workmanship may degrade the structural performance otherwise expected by the strengthening. In order to minimize such debonds and ease the installation, the authors propose to wrap compressive concrete members with narrow strips of CFRP laminates with spacing. This paper focuses on an experimental study to investigate the effectiveness of applying the narrow strips of CFRP laminates. In this study, 60 concrete cylinders wrapped with CFRP strips having different spacings and widths are tested under compression load. The effects of several key parameters such as spacing, spliced length, number of layers, and section area of the CFRP laminates are investigated. In addition, stress–strain curves of pre-damaged specimens wrapped with CFRP laminates are also focused. Based on the experimental results, constitutive models of concrete confined by narrow strips of CFRP laminates are proposed.     

Feasibility on fiber orientation detection of unidirectional CFRP composite laminates using one-sided pitch–catch ultrasonic technique

It is important to assess fiber orientation, material properties and part defect because strength and stiffness of composites depend on fiber orientation of CFRP (carbon fiber reinforced plastics). A one-sided pitch–catch setup was used in the detection and evaluation of ultrasonic wave behavior and fiber orientation in the unidirectional CFRP composite laminates. Two Rayleigh wave transducers were joined head-to-head and used in the pitch–catch mode on the surface of the composites. The pitch–catch signal was found to be more sensitive than normal incidence backwall echo of longitudinal wave to subtle flaw conditions in the composite. Especially, one-sided ultrasonic measurement was made with using a Rayleigh wave transducers and the Rayleigh ultrasonic waves were extensively characterized in the CFRP composite laminates. Also, a conventional scanner was used in an immersion tank for extracting fiber orientation information in the unidirectional laminate. Therefore, it is thought that the proposed method is useful to evaluate integrity of CFRP laminates.     

基于仿真方法的CFRP复合材料孔隙率与超声衰减系数的关系

为从超声衰减机制角度解释碳纤维增强树脂基（CFRP）复合材料孔隙率P与超声衰减系数α之间呈非唯一对应关系的原因,针对厚度为2 mm的热压罐成型单向CFRP层板,建立了具有不同孔隙尺寸的CFRP模型（P=0.5%~3.5%）,并采用数值计算方法得到衰减系数α值。当孔隙横向尺寸D=56 μm,即归一化波数kD=2π D/λ <1（超声波波长λ ≈560 μm）时,α随P增大而缓慢线性增加;当D=93 μm（kD ≈ 1）时,α随P增大呈对数增长。仿真结果表明,超声波在含孔隙CFRP中传播时,随着归一化波数的不同,超声波衰减可能包括瑞利散射和随机散射两种机制,孔隙形貌的随机复杂性导致CFRP孔隙率与超声衰减系数之间呈现非唯一对应关系。     

Evaluation of impact damage mechanism of multi-axial stitched CFRP laminate

This study focuses on multi-axial stitched fabric, which is a thick, high performance reinforcement for large-scale composite structures. The effects of impact damage on multi-axial stitched CFRP laminates molded by vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) method were evaluated. Impact damage within material was evaluated by ultrasonic scanning device and optical cross-sectional observations. Probed images obtained by both non-destructive and destructive methods were compared, and internal damage distributions of multi-axial stitched CFRP laminates were clarified. In addition, residual compressive strength and fatigue property of impact-damaged CFRP laminates were evaluated by in situ damage growth monitoring using the thermo-elastic stress analyzer (TESA). Three-dimensional damage distribution of impacted CFRP laminate was obtained from ultrasonic C-scan images and cross-sectional photographs. Damage progress behavior was observed on a destructive and non-destructive basis by post-impact fatigue (PIF) test.     

Characterization of high-velocity impact damage in CFRP laminates: Part II – prediction by smoothed particle hydrodynamics

High-velocity impact damage in CFRP laminates was studied experimentally and numerically. Part I of this study observed and evaluated near-perforation damage in the laminates and characterized the damage pattern experimentally. Part II predicts the extension of high-velocity impact damage based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), which facilitates the analysis of large deformations, contact, and separation of objects. A cross-ply laminate was divided into 0° and 90° layers, and virtual interlayer particles were inserted to express delamination. The damage patterns predicted on the surfaces and cross-sections agreed well with the experiments. The analyzed delamination shape was similar to that resulting from a low-velocity impact, consisting of pairs of fan-shaped delaminations symmetric about the impact point. Finally, the mechanisms of high-velocity impact damage in CFRP laminates are discussed based on the observations and numerical analyses.     

Damage sequence in thin-ply composite laminates under out-of-plane loading

The study of the damage sequence in polymer-based composite laminates during an impact event is a difficult issue. The problem can be more complex when the plies are thin. In this paper, quasi-static indentation tests were conducted on thin-ply laminates to understand qualitatively the damage mechanisms and their sequence during low-velocity impact loading. TeXtreme® plain weave plies were used with two different thicknesses, 0.08 mm and 0.16 mm (referenced as ultra-thin-ply and thin-ply, respectively), and tested under different load levels. Load–displacement curves were analyzed and the extent of damage was inspected using optical microscopy and ultrasonic technique. The results showed that the damage onset occurs earlier in thin-ply laminates. The damage onset in thin-ply laminates is matrix cracking which induces delaminations, whereas for ultra-thin-ply laminates is due to delaminations which are induced by shear forces and small amount of matrix cracking. Moreover, the fiber breakage appears earlier in ultra-thin-ply laminates.     

孔隙对碳纤维增强环氧树脂复合材料超声衰减系数及压缩性能的影响

孔隙对碳纤维增强环氧树脂（CF/EP）复合材料的力学性能和破坏模式有显著的影响,因此需要建立准确的孔隙率无损检测评估方法,并基于所评估的孔隙率提高CF/EP复合材料压缩性能预测的可靠性。本文主要研究了孔隙对CF/EP复合材料的超声衰减系数和压缩性能的影响,通过降低固化压力至0.7~0.2 MPa和延长预浸料室温贮存时间至30~180天的方法,制备了不同孔隙率的CF/EP复合材料层压板,通过金相验证其孔隙率在0%~3.0%之间,孔隙类型主要为层中孔隙和层间孔隙。通过理论和试验的方法,基于超声反射法建立了孔隙率与超声衰减系数的关系曲线,由孔隙引起超声衰减系数为α_v=1.08P_v2(P_v为孔隙率),与前人基于超声穿透法所得的超声衰减系数α_v=0.61P_v2较好地符合2倍声程的关系。对不同孔隙率的CF/EP复合材料层压板进行压缩测试实验,特别考虑了贴片和加载方向对测试结果的影响。从细观角度研究了含孔隙的CF/EP复合材料层压板的压缩破坏模式。结果表明:CF/EP复合材料层压板的压缩强度随孔隙率增加而下降,孔隙率增加至2.5%时,压缩强度下降13.7%,孔隙细观特征影响压缩破坏的形式,主要原因是孔隙诱发微裂纹的萌生和扩展,削弱了纤维与树脂间的结合力并引发纤维微屈曲。      

玻璃纤维复合材料孔隙率对超声衰减系数及力学性能的影响

在0.1~0.6 MPa热压压力条件下, 制备了不同孔隙率含量的玻璃纤维布/618环氧树脂层压板试件。采用超声C扫描及烧蚀密度法测定了试件的超声衰减系数与平均孔隙率, 并通过金相显微分析对孔隙的分布、 形状及尺寸进行了表征。讨论了孔隙率对层压板拉伸、 弯曲和层间剪切性能及超声衰减系数的影响规律, 获得了使力学性能下降的临界孔隙率及衰减系数值。结果表明, 随着固化压力减小, 孔隙率从0.976%增加到5.268%, 抗拉强度、 弯曲强度和层间剪切强度均下降, 衰减系数由1.460 dB·mm^-1增加到2.150 dB·mm^-1, 使力学性能下降的临界衰减系数约为1.5 dB·mm^-1。     

Rapidly cured out-of-autoclave laminates: Understanding and controlling the effect of voids on laminate fracture toughness

Voids are one of the most significant defects found within composites and have been demonstrated to reduce the performance of composite structures. The understanding of the impact of the size and distribution of voids on laminate properties is still limited because voids have proven difficult to deliberately control. This study aims to understand the mechanisms by which voids are generated within out-of-autoclave cured laminates. In this study, a process of prepreg conditioning was developed to control the level of voids within test laminates. Non-conditioned laminates highlighted signs of void growth (1.5%), while conditioned laminates showed consistently low levels of voids (<0.3%). Mass spectrometry indicated higher levels of aqueous and solvent volatiles within the non-conditioned prepreg. Finally, Mode II fracture testing revealed a 21% improvement in toughness for the non-voided laminates. A model on the effect of voids within the Mode II stress state has also been proposed.     

Effect of curing cycle on void distribution and interlaminar shear strength in polymer-matrix composites

The effect of temperature cycle on the void volume fraction, shape and spatial distribution was determined by means of X-ray microtomography in [0]₁₀ AS4/8552 composite laminates manufactured by compression molding. Cure temperatures were designed to obtain different processing windows while the overall degree of cure was equivalent, leading to laminates with average porosities in the range 0.4% and 2.9%. Regardless of the final porosity, voids were elongated, oriented parallel to the fibers and concentrated in channels along the width of the laminate as a result of the inhomogeneous process of consolidation and resin flow along the fibers. The interlaminar shear strength was found to be controlled by the void volume fraction in panels with porosity above 1%.     

Qualitative separation of the effect of voids on the bending fatigue performance of hygrothermal conditioned carbon/epoxy composites

This study investigates the effect of voids on the static bending and bending fatigue properties of T300/914 composite laminates that are exposed to room temperature, hygrothermal and drying environment, respectively. Displacement-controlled three-point bending fatigue tests were conducted on specimens, while damage in the composite was continuously recorded with a metallurgical microscope. After 40,000 cycles the fatigue test was stopped and residual properties were measured on the tested specimens. Reduction in material strength was found to depend on the level of the specimen’s void content. The changes in weight and size gradually increased with an increase in porosity from 0.33% to 1.50% in the hygrothermal environment. It is found that the maximum rate of dimensional change occurred in the thickness direction. Both bending strength and fatigue performance were reduced with increasing porosity. The damage evaluation of aged specimens was more severe than non-aged and drying specimens.     

Influence of stamping on the compressive behavior and the damage mechanisms of C/PEEK laminates bolted joints under severe conditions

Bolted joint tests have been performed in order to evaluate the influence of stamping on the behavior of thermoplastic-based woven-ply laminates subjected to structural loadings under severe service conditions (120 °C after hygrothermal aging). Compressive tests have been carried out on carbon fabrics reinforced PolyEtherEtherKetone (PEEK) laminates to investigate fibers buckling due to changes induced by stamping on the non-planar interply structure of woven-ply laminates. As compressive strength decreases by 13% in stamped laminates, it facilitates the plastic buckling of 0° and ±45° oriented fibers due to compressive loads in bolted joints. Contrary to double-lap joints, stamping does not affect the strength of single-lap joints, as the geometry of single-lap joints is non-symmetric. Stamping modifies the damage mechanisms of PEEK-based laminates under bolt-bearing loadings, such as the failure of stamped bolted joints is dominated by bearing failure mode.     

Effects of Cure Pressure Induced Voids on the Mechanical Strength of Carbon/Epoxy Laminates

This work aims at designing a set of curing pressure routes to produce laminates with various void contents. The effects of various consolidation pressures resulting in different void contents on mechanical strength of carbon/epoxy laminates have been examined. Characterization of the voids, in terms of void volume fraction, void distribution, size, and shape, was performed by standard test, ultrasonic inspection and metallographic analysis. The interlaminar shear strength was measured by the short-beam method. An empirical model was used to predict the strength vs porosity. The predicted strengths conform well with the experimental data and voids were found to be uniformly distributed throughout the laminate.     

CFRP随机孔隙模型及孔隙率超声检测数值模拟

基于炭纤维增强树脂基复合材料(CFRP)随机孔隙模型,提出采用时域有限差分法对CFRP孔隙率超声衰减检测进行数值模拟。针对孔隙率P=0.065%~4.96%,厚度2mm,纤维质量分数69%±3%的多层预浸料热压成型炭纤维单向增强环氧树脂基复合板,进行了数值模拟与实验测试。所得到的CFRP孔隙率与超声衰减系数间关系,在模拟与实验中展现了相似的规律。结果表明:利用随机孔隙模型结合时域有限差分法进行CFRP孔隙率超声检测数值模拟具有可行性。     

Damage evolution behavior of CFRP laminates under post-impact fatigue with water absorption environment

In this study, the damage evolution behavior was evaluated considering the effect of the textile structure and water absorption. Damage observation was conducted by the integration of non-destructive and direct observation methods. Candidate textile reinforcements were T300-3k plain woven fabric (PW) and T700S-12k multi-axial knitted fabric (MA). The effect of water absorption on the performances of compression after impact (CAI) and PIF were small in PW CFRP laminates. Conversely, PIF properties of water-absorbed MA CFRP laminates drastically decreased than that of dry ones. CAI strength was not affected by water absorption. PIF performance of dry MA CFRP was fairly higher than that of the others. From the precise observation, some evidences of interfacial deterioration caused by water absorption were confirmed in both PW and MA CFRP laminates.     

CFRP中孔隙几何形貌与超声衰减系数关系的研究

通过金相和超声衰减系数表征CFRP层压板中的孔隙,研究孔隙形貌对超声衰减的影响。结果表明:超声衰减系数随孔隙几何形貌参数(平均长、宽、面积)的增大而增大;平均孔隙长度随孔隙率的增加程度大于平均孔隙宽度随孔隙率的增加程度;超声衰减系数随主要尺寸区域内的孔隙所占比例的增加,总体趋势减小;同一孔隙率下,大尺寸孔隙所占的比例越多,其超声衰减系数越大。总之,本试验中孔隙形貌对超声衰减有一定的影响且不能忽略。