Detection of roe deer,red deer,and hare meat in raw materials and processed products available in Poland

To allow detection of meat from the most popular game species in Poland, we developed a PCR-based method for identification of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and hare (Lepus europaeus). The designed primers were based on the noncoding, mitochondrial D-loop region. Amplicon sizes ranged from 116 to 255 bp. The primers exhibited no cross-reactivity with the DNA from common slaughter and other game species. The detection limit of the assay was established to be below 0.001 % in raw red deer (C. elaphus) and hare (L. europaeus) meat, and below 0.01 % in raw roe deer (C. capreolus) meat, whereas <0.5 % of hare and red deer meat in processed samples could be detected. The PCR-based assay was used for authentication of 17 samples of raw game meat and 32 samples of game meat-containing products available in Polish markets. Analysis of all tested raw meat and processed products revealed the presence of DNA of investigated species in concordance with producers’ declarations.     

Assessment of levels of bacterial contamination of large wild game meat in Europe

The variations in prevalence and levels of pathogens and fecal contamination indicators in large wild game meat were studied to assess their potential impact on consumers. This analysis was based on hazard analysis, data generation and statistical analysis. A total of 2919 meat samples from three species (red deer, roe deer, wild boar) were collected at French game meat traders’ facilities using two sampling protocols. Information was gathered on the types of meat cuts (forequarter or haunch; first sampling protocol) or type of retail-ready meat (stewing meat or roasting meat; second protocol), and also on the meat storage conditions (frozen or chilled), country of origin (eight countries) and shooting season (autumn, winter, spring). The samples were analyzed in both protocols for detection and enumeration of Escherichia coli, coagulase + staphylococci and Clostridium perfringens. In addition, detection and enumeration of thermotolerant coliforms and Listeria monocytogenes were performed for samples collected in the first and second protocols, respectively. The levels of bacterial contamination of the raw meat were determined by performing statistical analysis involving probabilistic techniques and Bayesian inference. C. perfringens was found in the highest numbers for the three indicators of microbial quality, hygiene and good handling, and L. monocytogenes in the lowest. Differences in contamination levels between game species and between meats distributed as chilled or frozen products were not significant. These results might be included in quantitative exposure assessments.     

Identification of meats from red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) using polymerase chain reaction targeting specific sequences from the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based on oligonucleotide primers targeting the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene was applied to the specific identification of meats from red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). The use of a common reverse primer, together with forward specific primers for red deer, fallow deer, and roe deer, allowed the selective amplification of the desired cervid sequences. The specificity of each primer pair was verified by PCR analysis of DNA from various game and domestic meats. The assay can be useful for the accurate identification of meats from cervid species, avoiding mislabeling or fraudulent species substitution in meat products.     

Game meat consumption by hunters and their relatives: a probabilistic approach

This study aimed to estimate the consumption of meat and products derived from hunting by the consumer population and, specifically, by hunters and their relatives. For this purpose, a survey was conducted on the frequency of consuming meat from the four most representative game species in Spain, two of big game, wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus), and two of small game, rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and red partridge (Alectoris rufa), as well as of processed meat products (salami-type sausage) made from those big game species. The survey was carried out on 337 habitual consumers of these types of products (hunters and their relatives). The total mean game meat consumption, per capita in this population group, is 6.87 kg/person/year of meat and 8.57 kg/person/year if the processed meat products are also considered. Consumption of rabbit, red partridge, red deer and wild boar, individually, was 1.85, 0.82, 2.28 and 1.92 kg/person/year, respectively. It was observed that hunters generally registered a larger intake of game meat, this being statistically significant in the case of rabbit meat consumption. Using probabilistic methods, the meat consumption frequency distributions for each hunting species studied were estimated, as well as the products made from big game species and the total consumption both of meat by itself and that including the products made from it. The consumption frequency distributions were adjusted to exponential ones, verified by the test suitable for it according to Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), the Chi-squared and Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistics. In addition, the consumption percentiles of the different distributions were obtained. The latter could be a good tool when making nutrition or contaminant studies since they permit the assessment of exposure to the compound in question.     

Elemental composition of game meat from Austria

Concentrations of 26 elements (B, Na, Mg, P, S, K, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Mo, Cd, Sb, Ba, Hg, Pb, U) in wild game meat from Austria were analysed using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. All investigated animals were culled during the hunting season 2012/2013, including 10 chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), 9 hare (Lepus europaeus), 10 pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), 10 red deer (Cervus elaphus), 12 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and 10 wild boar (Sus scrofa). In 19 out of 61 meat samples lead concentrations were higher than 0.1 mg/kg, the maximum limit in meat as set by the European Commission (Regulation EC No 1881/2006), which is most likely caused by ammunition residues. Especially, pellet shot animals and chamois show a high risk for lead contamination. Despite ammunition residues all investigated muscle samples show no further health risk with respect to metal contamination.     

The influence of environment, mode of nutrition and animal species on level of nitrosamine contamination in venison

The work aimed to research occurrence of nitrosamines in raw venison from different game species and mode of nutrition effect on their meat concentrations. Samples of venison from male and female elks, male and female red deer, male and female roe deer, male and female fallow deer, male and female wild boars, male and female brown hares and males and females of wild rabbits shot in Poland during the permissible hunting seasons were used for the experiments after their jointing and cutting. In the experiments conducted on eight species and 16 genera of wild male and female game animals a total of 336 analytical assays were conducted. Twenty-one meat samples of 1 kg each (each from a different animal) were collected respectively from males and females of eight animal species and taken to a laboratory. Meat contents of nitrosamines [dimethylonitrosamine (DMNA) and diethylonitrosamine (DENA)] were assessed by Pancholy's method adapted to nitrosamine determination in meat and meat products by Scanlan and Ryes. The levels of DMNA and DENA were determined using a Varian 3400 gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer (Finnigan MAT ITD. 800). Quantitative and qualitative analysis was conducted by comparison with N-nitrosamine standard solution chromatograms.     

Identification of hare meat by a species-specific marker of mitochondrial origin

Meat species identification in food has gained increasing interest in recent years due to public health, economic and legal concerns. Following the consumer trend towards high quality products, game meat has earned much attention. The aim of the present work was to develop a DNA-based technique able to identify hare meat. Mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was used to design species-specific primers for hare detection. The new primers proved to be highly specific to Lepus species, allowing the detection of 0.01% of hare meat in pork meat by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A real-time PCR assay with the new intercalating EvaGreen dye was further proposed as a specific and fast tool for hare identification with increased sensitivity (1 pg) compared to end-point PCR (10 pg). It can be concluded that the proposed new primers can be used by both species-specific end-point PCR or real-time PCR to accurately authenticate hare meat.     

Determination of mitochondrial cytochrome B gene sequence for red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the differentiation of closely related deer meats

The cytochrome b gene sequence for red deer was determined using the Dye Terminator Cycle Sequencing method and used for identification of deer meat in meat and meat products. Red deer showed a similarity of 94.1, 84.0, 81.1, 85.5 and 85.6% to sika deer (Cervus nippon), bovine, pigs, sheep and goats, respectively. To differentiate the deer meat, oligonucleotide primers RD-1(5′-TCATCGCAGCACTCGCTATAGTACACT-3′), RD-2(5′-ATCTCCAAGTAGGTCTGGTGCGAATAA-3′) were designed for the region of the cytochrome b gene of red deer. The PCR amplified 194 bp fragments from red and sika deer, but no fragments from bovine, pig, chicken, sheep, goat, horse and rabbit DNA. Although cooking the meats reduced the PCR products, red deer could still be detected in meat heated at 120 °C. To discriminate between red and sika deer, these PCR products were digested by a restriction enzyme (EcoRI,BamHI,ScaI) and analyzed by 4% agorose gel electrophoresis. As a result, the red deer fragment was digested by EcoRI to 67/127 bp fragments but not by BamHI and ScaI. The sika deer fragment was digested to 48/146 bp and 49/145 bp fragments with the two other enzymes, and thus it is possible to differentiate between the two kinds of deer from the digestion pattern of restriction enzymes.     

Identification of meat species by PCR-RFLP of the mitochondrial COI gene

Meat authenticity verification is pertinent for economical, religious or public health concerns. The present study investigates the use of PCR-RFLP of a part of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene for identification of species origin of raw meat samples of cow, chicken, turkey, sheep, pig, buffalo, camel and donkey. PCR yielded a 710-bp fragment in all species. The amplicons were digested with seven restriction endonucleases (Hind II, Ava II, Rsa I, Taq I, Hpa II, Tru 1I and Xba I) that were selected based on the preliminary in silico analysis. Different levels of polymorphism were detected among samples. The level of COI variation revealed using only Hpa II was sufficient to generate easily analyzable species-specific restriction profiles that could distinguish unambiguously all targeted species. Compared to previously published reports for the determination of meat origin at the molecular level, the approach developed here is much cheaper and faster for routine identification of meats in food control laboratories.     

Risk assessment of the lead intake by consumption of red deer and wild boar meat in Southern Spain

The presence of heavy metals in big game meat may pose a risk to human health. The main objective of this paper is to carry out a risk assessment study (using a probabilistic and point-estimate approach) of lead intake by consumption of red deer and wild boar meat in Southern Spain based on Spanish data collected in the period 2003–2006. In general, the concentration levels found for wild boar meat (mean?=?1291?µg?kg^?1) were much higher than those observed in red deer meat (mean?=?326?µg?kg^?1). The results from a point-estimate risk assessment showed that the estimated average intake of lead among different exposure scenarios varied from 0.1 to 6.5 and from 0.3 to 38?µg?kg^?1?week^?1 for red deer and wild boar meat, respectively; and from 0.3 to 35?µg?kg^?1?week^?1 for individuals consuming both red deer and wild boar meat, and that the estimated intake of lead by consumption of big game meat differed significantly between hunters and non-hunters, it being higher for hunters. Besides this, results from the probabilistic risk assessment study corroborated the fact that risk is greater in hunter populations, reaching a maximum in individuals consuming only wild boar and both types of meat, with 0.4% and 0.2% of the population above the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI), respectively. Likewise, the hunter populations consuming wild boar and both types of big game meat (red deer and wild boar meat) were exposed to the maximum lead level (56?µg?kg^?1?week^?1), which corresponded approximately to 224% of the PTWI. Further data and studies will be needed to give a complete risk estimation in which it will be crucial to consider the contribution to the lead intake level of other foods in the diet of both population groups.     

Microbiological conditions of meats from large game animals and birds

Large game animals and birds used for the commercial production of meat include deer of various species, wild boar and feral pigs, ostriches, emus and rheas, crocodiles and alligators, bison, and kangaroos. Meat from feral pigs and kangaroos is obtained from wild animals only, but much or most meat from the other game animals or birds is obtained from farmed animals. The microbiological conditions of meats from hunted animals can be compromised by poor placement of shots, the usual evisceration and sometimes further dressing of carcass in the field, and ageing of carcasses at ambient temperatures. However, the general microbiological conditions of carcasses from farmed game animals or birds slaughtered and dressed at suitable abattoirs can be comparable with or better than the microbiological conditions of carcasses from domestic animals or birds. The incidences of enteric pathogens on meat from wild or farmed game animals or birds can be less than those for meat from intensively reared domestic animals, but infection of some game meats with Trichinella or other foodborne parasites may occur.     

Quantitative Detection of Poultry in Cooked Meat Products

ABSTRACT: There is a growing awareness of perceived harm from meat species adulteration, both intentional and accidental. The present study developed a monoclonal antibody (Mab)-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the quantitative detection of chicken and turkey meat adulterated in cooked (100 °C, 15 min) mammalian meat. The specificity of Mab 5D2 to different species (pork, beef, lamb, deer, horse, duck, chicken, and turkey) and tissues (serum, gizzard, heart, and liver) was studied by noncompetitive ELISA. The detection of cooked chicken in beef, and turkey in pork was accomplished by competitive and noncompetitive ELISAs. Both ELISAs were optimized to quantify cooked poultry in red meats. The new Mab-based ELISAs enabled the detection of cooked poultry in red meats at levels as low as 1% (v/v) or better. The correlation ( r > 0.994) between chicken or turkey concentrations and ELISA signals permitted the quantification of poultry adulterants in cooked non-poultry meats.     

Suitability of Norwegian short-tail lambs, Norwegian dairy goats and Cashmere goats for meat production - Carcass, meat, chemical and sensory characteristics

Six female Norwegian lambs (29 kg body weight, 8 months old), six castrated Norwegian goats (27 kg body weight, 10 months old) and six castrated Cashmere goats (20 kg body weight, 8 months old) were used to study the relative potential of Norwegian lambs, Norwegian goats and Cashmere goats for meat production. Animals were fattened on silage and commercial concentrate before slaughter. Lamb meat had 4 % lower (P < 0.05) proteins and 13% higher (P < 0.05) fat content than goat meats. Moreover, m. longissimus dorsi samples from lambs were less red (a^∗) (P < 0.05) and had lower colour intensity (C) and wider hue angle (H) than that from goats. Meat from lambs and Cashmere goats had higher proportions of saturated fatty acids (SFA) (P < 0.001), especially stearic acid and lower ones for total unsaturated fatty acids (TUFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) than the meat from Norwegian goats. Sensory panellists scored lamb meat fattier, juicier and more tender than goat meats. Meat from Cashmere goats scored highest (P < 0.05) in whiteness, and lowest (P < 0.05) in both colour tone and colour intensity. It is concluded that, since C18:0 was the main contributor of SFA in meat from Norwegian lamb and Cashmere goats, meats from them are nutritionally comparable to that from Norwegian goats. However, the higher proportion of SFA in Norwegian lambs and Cashmere goats may increase hardness of fat and being easily solidified upon cooling, may influence meat palatability.     

Characteristics of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli from meat and milk products of different origins and association with food producing animals as main contamination sources

Shiga toxin-producing strains of Escherichia coli (STEC) cause diarrhoea and haemorrhagic colitis in humans. Most human infections are attributed to consumption of STEC contaminated foodstuff. Food producing animals constitute important reservoirs of STEC and serve as source of food contamination. In this study, we have analyzed 593 foodborne STEC strains for their serotypes and for nine virulence genes (stx1, stx1c, stx1d, stx2, stx2b, stx2e, stx2g, E-hly and eae). The 593 STEC strains grouped into 215 serotypes, and 123 serotypes (57.2%) were represented each by only one STEC isolate. Fifteen serotypes (7.0%) were attributed to 198 (33.3%) of the 593 STEC strains. The foodborne STEC were grouped into different categories in relation to the species of the food producing animal (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, red deer, wild-boar and hare). Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses revealed significant similarities between the animal origin of the food and the virulence markers of foodborne STEC. Significant associations (p < 0.001) were found for stx1 and for stx2 with bovine meat and milk products. The stx2e gene was significantly (p < 0.001) associated with STEC from pork and wild boar meat. Stx1c and stx2b genes were significantly (p < 0.001) more frequent in STEC from deer meat, as well as from meat and milk products derived from sheep and goats. Using logistic regression models we detected significant (p < 0.01) combinations between stx1, stx2 and E-hly genes and STEC from bovine meat. The combination of stx1c and stx2b genes was significant (p < 0.001) for STEC derived from red deer, sheep and goat products. The properties of foodborne STEC were compared with published data on faecal STEC from food producing animals. Virulence profiles and serotypes of STEC from food showed remarkable similarities to those of faecal STEC that were from the same animal species. The findings from our study clearly indicate that the food producing animals represent the most important source for the entry of STEC in the food chain. Sound hygiene measures implemented at critical stages of food production (milking, slaughtering, and evisceration) should be most effective in reducing the frequency of STEC contamination of food derived from domestic and wildlife animals.     

Effects of feeding regimen and chilled storage on water‐holding capacity,colour stability,pigment content and oxidation in red deer (Cervus elaphus) meat

The effects of feeding regimen on carcass characteristics, meat colour and lipid stability, pigment content and water‐holding capacity of M. longissimus were studied in 16 male red deer. All animals were farm raised; eight were grazing pasture and eight were fed a pelleted commercial feed mixture for 10 weeks prior to slaughter. The pellet‐fed deer had significantly higher live weight, carcass weight, dressing yield (g kg^?1) and fat content than the pasture group. Carcasses from the pellet‐fed deer had higher temperatures over 0–10 h post mortem than carcasses from the grazing animals, probably due to an insulating fat cover. Ultimate pH values were lowest in meat from the pellet‐fed deer. The meat from the grazing deer had significantly better colour stability at 1 day post‐slaughter and after 1, 3 and 6 weeks of refrigerated storage (?1.5 °C) in vacuum bags. After 3, 6 and 12 weeks of refrigerated storage the meat from the pellet‐fed deer had significantly higher drip loss. No difference was found in the amount of oxidation products (thiobarbituric reactive substances, TBARS) when comparing the treatment groups, although the amount of TBARS increased during storage. Muscle pigment content was significantly higher in grazing deer than in the pellet‐fed group. It was not possible to confirm a correlation between lipid and pigment oxidation in the meat, and the pigment content of the meat samples did not seem to have an influence on colour stability or oxidation product formation. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Microbiological and Chemical Evaluation of Dried Smoked Meat Product

The aim of this study was to determine the chemical and microbiological quality of an artisanal dried smoked meat product, manufactured in a domestic household. At the end of production, the average moisture content was 37.83%, salt 5.07%, while water activity was 0.89. Yeast counts were approximately 1.0 x 10⁷ cfu/g while mould counts were 1.2 x 10⁶ cfu/g. Two commonly present Penicillium species were identified: P. aurantiogriseum and P. commune. Our results suggest that the artisan manufacturers of these types of meat product should take steps to ensure a higher quality of their products.     

Selenium Content of Venison, Squirrel, and Beef Purchased or Produced in Ohio, a Low Selenium Region of the United States

ABSTRACT: The selenium (Se) content (AOAC fluorometric method) of: 1) raw and cooked venison, squirrel, and beef from a low selenium region of the United States and 2) nonregion-raised beef was assessed and compared by region, species, and gender. For both raw and cooked meats, the Se content of venison was not different from region-raised beef (p > .05), and their contents were generally less than squirrel, which was less than nonregion-raised beef (p < .05). Gender and age did not influence Se content of the meats. Field-dressed weight did not affect Se content of deer, and antler size did not impact Se content of meat from male deer.     

An evaluation of a method to differentiate the species of origin of meats on the basis of the contents of anserine,balenine and carnosine in skeletal muscle

The high performance liquid chromatographic method proposed by Carnegie for determining the species of origin of meats in cooked products has been evaluated. The dipeptides anserine, balenine (ophidine) and carnosine have been extracted from the skeletal muscle of animals in New Zealand and compared with results obtained in Australia. The presence of significant quantities of balenine in red deer meat is reported for the first time. Limitations of the method are discussed.     

Cured products from different animal species

An assessment was made of the proximate composition, pH and a_W of raw beef, horsemeat and the meat of wild boar, deer and goat. The same assessment, together with one of fatty acids, cholesterol and free amino acids, was made of the same meats as cured products. The raw meat of the different animal species was found to have a reduced lipid, but high protein content. The cured meat of the horse and wild boar had low saturated fatty acid levels; the wild boar, goatmeat and beef were quantitatively similar with regard to monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) while in the horsemeat the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were more raised, at an intermediate level in deer and extremely reduced in the beef final product. The cholesterol content in the cured product was markedly reduced in the horsemeat. The free amino acids content in the cured deer, wild boar and goat meat was more elevated, than in beef and horse cured meat.     

Effects of fibre type and kefir,wine lemon,and pineapple marinades on texture and sensory properties of wild boar and deer longissimus muscle

Fibre type percentage and changes in textural parameters, sensory properties as well as mean fibre cross sectional area (CSA), fibre shape, endomysium and perimysium thickness of wild boar and deer longissimus (L) muscle subjected to ageing with kefir, dry red wine, lemon and pineapple juice marinades for 4 days were studied. Among the non-marinated and non-aged samples of muscles it was found that wild boar meat with its higher percentage of red fibres, higher CSA, thicker connective tissue as compared with deer meat, was harder, more springy and stringy.Muscles ageing, regardless of methods, resulted in a decrease in both the CSA and thickness of the connective tissue, and improve in fibre shape. As a consequence ageing caused a reduction in hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and stringiness as well as in augmentation of tenderness, juiciness and general attractiveness of the muscles studied.As demonstrated by obtained data, regardless of ageing methods, deer L muscle contained more white fibres compared to wild boar muscle, were more susceptible to tenderization. The highest structural and textural changes, but the worst general attractiveness was found in muscles marinated with pineapple juice addition. Insignificantly lower changes in both quality traits were found in muscles aged with kefir marinade which at the same time were characterized by the high tenderness, the highest juiciness and general attractiveness.