On the low cycle fatigue failure of insulated rail joints (IRJs)

Insulated rail joints (IRJs) are safety critical components in the signalling system of railway corridors which provide a break in the continuity of the rail steel to locate trains. IRJs connect the two rail ends at the discontinuity to achieve geometric and mechanical requirements of rail. The bending stiffness of an IRJ is about one third that of continuous rail. As a result, the IRJs, especially those in heavy haul tracks, exhibit early failure predominantly due to ratchetting or alternating plasticity of railhead metal in the vicinity of the endpost insulators.A three-dimensional (3D) finite element numerical simulation is carried out to examine failures of railhead material in the vicinity of the endpost of an insulated rail joint considering high frequency dynamic wheel loading. A dynamic wheel load of 182 kN is applied through a contact patch; the distribution of contact pressure is considered using a non-Hertzian formulation. A 12 m long global IRJ model and a sub-model for localised analysis are employed. The shakedown theorem is employed in this study. Nonlinear isotropic/kinematic elastic–plastic material modelling is employed in the simulation. A peak pressure load lower than the shakedown limit is considered as the input load.The equivalent plastic strain plot for this load case lower than the shakedown limit demonstrates the railhead damage captured through a localised stress analysis in the vicinity of the endpost using the sub-modelling technique. The sub-surface plastic deformation of railhead material extends down to 8 mm from the railhead top surface. The critical crack initiating stress components are at 2–4 mm sub-surface depth. As such, the railhead material fails due to alternating plasticity through low cycle fatigue. Laboratory tests were performed to verify the simulation results and found that test and simulation results correlated well.     

Dynamic stress analysis of rail joint with height difference defect using finite element method

A finite element analysis is conducted to study dynamic elastic–plastic stress when a wheel passes a rail joint with height difference between the two sides of a gap. The ANSYS implicit code and LS-DYNA explicit code are coupled to simulate the process of the wheel contacting or impacting the rail joint. Contact elements are used to simulate the interactions between wheel and rails, between rails and joint bars, between joint bars and bolts and between bolts and rails. The effects of train speed, axle load and height difference on the contact forces, stresses and strains at railhead are investigated. Numerical results show that the presence of rail joint with height difference significantly affect the contact force, stress and strains. The results also indicate that the train speed has a larger effect on the contact force, stress and strains than the axle load.     

铁路曲线钢轨横向凹坑对初始波磨形成的影响

建立了车辆/轨道横向垂向耦合动力学、轮轨滚动接触力学和钢轨材料摩擦磨损模型为一体的钢轨波磨计算模型,发展了相应的数值方法。利用该方法分析了曲线钢轨顶面内侧具有横向凹坑对初始波磨形成的影响。计算了客车车辆通过钢轨轨头横向凹坑时,同一个转向架的4个车轮反复作用下钢轨初始波磨形成和发展情况。数值结果表明,当车辆通过具有横向凹坑的曲线钢轨时,轮对和钢轨之间发生瞬态冲击振动,引起钢轨接触面产生不均匀磨损而形成初始波磨,随着车辆通过次数增加,不均匀波磨深度加大并向前扩展,形成大约30mm和750mm的波长;当车轮通过横向凹坑瞬间,车轮和钢轨之间发生激烈的振动,使4车轮下的钢轨接触表面产生严重的凹坑磨损,当车辆再次通过时,轮轨间的振动继续加剧,凹坑磨损深度迅速加大;前轮对通过凹坑而受激振动对后轮对动力学行为影响较大,导致后轮对作用下钢轨接触面不均匀磨损严重,但后轮对受激振动对前轮对动力学行为的影响较小;前轮对左轮受外轨激振作用而导致前轮对右轮下钢轨接触面凹坑磨损最严重。     

Minimization of railhead edge stresses through shape optimization

The railhead is severely stressed under the localized wheel contact patch close to the gaps in insulated rail joints. A modified railhead profile in the vicinity of the gapped joint, through a shape optimization model based on a coupled genetic algorithm and finite element method, effectively alters the contact zone and reduces the railhead edge stress concentration significantly. Two optimization methods, a grid search method and a genetic algorithm, were employed for this optimization problem. The optimal results from these two methods are discussed and, in particular, their suitability for the rail end stress minimization problem is studied. Through several numerical examples, the optimal profile is shown to be unaffected by either the magnitude or the contact position of the loaded wheel. The numerical results are validated through a large-scale experimental study.     

Shakedown limit of rail surfaces including material hardening and thermal stresses

Sliding friction between railway wheels and rails results in elevated contact temperatures and gives rise to severe thermal stresses at the wheel and rail surfaces. The thermal stresses have to be superimposed on the mechanical contact stresses. Due to the distribution of stresses, the rail surface is generally subjected to higher stresses than the wheel surface. The elastic limit is reduced and yield begins at lower mechanical loads. During the first cycles of plastic deformation, the material hardens and residual stresses build up. The residual stresses provide the structure to shake down to pure elastic behaviour in subsequent load cycles up to a shakedown limit. The kind of hardening observed for rail steel has a considerable influence on the shakedown limit. The shakedown limit is dropped to lower mechanical loads due to the thermal stresses in the rail surface as well. This might cause structural changes in the rail material and rail damage.     

多步非稳态载荷下钢轨滚动接触应力和弹塑性变形分析

采用弹塑性有限元法,分析了多步非稳态载荷下钢轨滚动接触应力和变形。多步载荷指的是钢轨同时受到机车和车辆车轮的反复作用或多趟列车通过钢轨。通过在钢轨表面重复移动Hertz法向压力分布和切向力分布来模拟车轮的反复滚动作用。材料循环塑性本构模型采用考虑材料棘轮效应的Jiang-Sehitoglu模型。分析结果表明:在非稳态载荷作用下,钢轨接触表面产生不均匀塑性变形而形成波状表面;多步载荷对钢轨残余应力影响不大;随着机车车轮通过次数的增加,钢轨残余剪应变、表面材料位移、波深和残余累积等效塑性应变将增大,在机车车轮通过之后,随着车辆车轮通过次数的增加,前三个量将减小,而残余累积等效塑性应变继续增大,但其增大的速率变小。随着机车和车辆车轮反复滚过钢轨,钢轨残余剪应变、表面材料位移和波深变化速率即棘轮率呈衰减性。     

轨道接头压陷激励下轮轨垂向振动分析

本文基于车辆－轨道耦合大系统的思想，将钢轨简化为弹性点支承有限长的欧拉梁、轮轨接触关系采用弹簧接触，建立了轮轨动力学模型。对车轮匀速行驶过程中，在轨道接头压陷激励下轮轨相互作用产生垂向振动响应作了分析。并得出车速、轨头压陷波深对振动的影响。     

Fatigue characteristics of continuous welded rails and the effect of residual stress on fatigue-ratchetting interaction

ABSTRACT

The importance of ratchetting-fatigue interaction is garnering interest due to complex failure mechanism of rail welds under cyclic loading. The objective of this paper is to investigate the fatigue characteristics of continuous welded rails (CWRs) and the effect of residual stress on fatigue-ratchetting interaction. For this purpose, UIC60 rails have been modeled using a three-dimensional finite element model, including a combination of nonlinear kinematic and isotropic hardening. In addition, the interaction between cyclic loading and the effect of residual stress on fatigue is taken into consideration. Finite element model is validated against representative experimental findings. Smith–Watson–Topper (SWT) method is utilized in order to estimate the fatigue life of rail welds under static and cyclic loading. Lower fatigue life is predicted with increasing load due to the contact between rails and wheels. Simulation results also show that failure in the form of ratchetting occurs during the 10,236th cycle, while failure corresponds to the 15,290th cycle and the 145,161st cycle based on the SWT and Coffin-Manson fatigue models, respectively. These findings suggest that investigations on ratchetting and fatigue should be carried out simultaneously to estimate the failure of the CWRs.     

车轮与高速道岔长短心轨的接触分析

针对动车组、机车车轮与高速道岔的磨耗问题,测量运行线路上磨耗后的车轮与道岔的实际几何尺寸,应用有限元方法求解车轮与道岔长短心轨的接触问题。计算了车轮与高速道岔的长短心轨部分在不同位置的接触状态,分析得出了不同工况下车轮与心轨接触斑、等效应力以及接触法向力的分布和变化规律,为道岔结构的合理设计和型面尺寸的优化提供了一定的理论依据。结果表明:JM3型机车车轮与18号高速道岔的心轨型面匹配不合理;动车组和机车车轮与心轨间的最大应力值都超过了轮轨材料的屈服极限,发生塑性变形;车轮在钢轨上的横移量影响轮岔之间的磨耗,向心轨外侧的横移量越大,磨耗越严重。     

Premature failure of steel gantry crane wheels

A metallurgical failure analysis was performed on a set of carbon steel gantry crane wheels following observation of excessive damage to the central tread surfaces. Rolling contact fatigue was considered as a possible failure mechanism due to the presence of what appeared to be spalling. Metallographic evaluation and hardness testing revealed that portions of the wheel tread surface had not reached the specified case hardness during heat treatment, leaving the tread surface edges in a near normalized condition. Continual contact with the rail during service allowed for plastic flow of the softer materials across the surface, resulting in the observed damage.     

Numerical analysis of wheel cornering fatigue tests

In automotive engineering, the wheels are one of the most critical components and their function is of vital importance n human safety. The cornering fatigue test is one of the traditional durability tests for wheel prototype verification. In this paper, a bi-axial load–notch strain approximation for proportional loading is proposed to estimate the fatigue life of a passenger car wheel during the cornering fatigue test under plane stress conditions. The elasto-plastic strain components are calculated analytically using the total deformation theory of plasticity. The input for the load–notch strain analysis is the measured or calculated plastic strain state at the notch together with the materials stabilised cyclic stress–strain curve evaluated with unnotched tension specimens. The damage accumulation is based on the Palmgren–Miner rule. The methodology is implemented in a program called “Metal Fatigue Prediction and Analysis” (MFPA). The life prediction of a passenger car wheel during the cornering fatigue test is performed. The results of the analysis is compared with two cornering tests on the same design. The result is very encouraging and the application of the developed MFPA program provides time and the cost savings in the analysis of wheel cornering fatigue tests.     

Numerical assessment of the loading of rolling contact fatigue cracks close to rail surface irregularities

Rolling contact fatigue damage of railway rails in the form of squats, characterised by local depressions and cracks located at the rail surface, has been linked to the occurrence of local rail surface irregularities. This study concerns rolling contact fatigue cracks in the vicinity of fairly smooth surface irregularities, here denoted dimples. The influence of factors such as dimple geometry, cluster effects, and crack size is evaluated. To this end, dynamic vehicle–track simulations featuring realistic wheel and rail profiles are employed to characterise the dynamic impact during a wheel passage. The contact load in the vicinity of the dimples is then mapped onto a 3D finite element model of a rail section containing a crack in the rail head. The crack loading is finally quantified by multimodal stress intensity factors. The analyses establish that also shallow dimples might have a significant impact on the crack loading. This effect is increased for larger or multiple irregularities but decreases as the crack grows.     

Numerical study on fatigue crack growth in railway wheels under the influence of residual stresses

Accurate prediction of fatigue crack growth on railway wheels and the influence of residual stresses by finite element method (FEM) modeling can affect the maintenance planning. Therefore, investigation of rolling contact fatigue and its effect on rolling members life seem necessary. The objective of this paper is to provide a prediction of rolling contact fatigue crack growth in the rail wheel under the influence of stress field from mechanical loads and heat treatment process of a railway wheel. A 3D nonlinear stress analysis model has been applied to estimate stress fields of the railway mono-block wheel in heat treatment process. Finite element analysis model is presented applying the elastic–plastic finite element analysis for the rail wheel under variable thermal loads. The stress history is then used to calculate stress intensity factors (SIFs) and fatigue life of railway wheel. The effect of several parameters, vertical loads, initial crack length and friction coefficient between the wheel and rail, on the fatigue life in railway wheels is investigated using the suggested 3-D finite element model. Three-dimensional finite element analysis results obtained show good agreement with those achieved in field measurements.     

Prevention of RCF damage in curved track through development of the INFRA‐STAR two‐material rail

Results from the European 5th frame research project ‘INFRA‐STAR’ are presented. The goal of the project is to prevent rolling contact fatigue (RCF) and to reduce squeal noise in curves by applying an additional surface layer material on the top of the railhead, resulting in a two‐material rail. In INFRA‐STAR, a dynamic train–track interaction model is used to provide the contact forces. Wheel‐rail profiles, wheel‐rail friction, vehicle data, track data and operating conditions are included to calculate the wheel‐rail contact forces and spin moments, contact positions and load distributions in the contact patch. The contact pressure, friction coefficient, coating thickness, material properties of the coating and the rail material are used in finite element calculations and shakedown theory to calculate shakedown limits, which are then used to predict the RCF performance of the system. The paper details the work on theoretical modelling, twin disc testing, metallurgical research and field testing completed to date (August 2002, the project just passed midterm). The development of the surface layer application methods that are used, and the further objectives of the INFRA‐STAR project, are discussed.     

铁路钢轨打磨目标型面研究

提出一种基于轮轨接触界面法向间隙的钢轨踏面设计方法,寻找了重载线路上较小轮轨接触应力水平的钢轨打磨目标型面,为新铺设钢轨预打磨及预防性打磨方案的设计提供理论依据。根据三维非赫兹滚动接触理论寻找了轨头的优化范围,在此范围内能保证轮对动态横移过程中,轮轨接触点附近最小法向间隙的钢轨轨头外形。针对重载线路轮轨伤损严重的问题,利用目前的方法对现有的60kg/m钢轨进行了优化设计。利用车辆-轨道耦合动力学理论及三维弹性体非赫兹滚动接触理论对优化前后钢轨踏面与原车轮接触时静态接触性能及动态接触性能进行了分析。结果表明,优化后轮轨界面之间具有较好的"共形"接触特性,在不降低车轮其他动力学性能的情况下,钢轨踏面优化后的轮轨接触应力显著地降低,并且使左右轮轨磨耗程度趋于均衡,可以有效降低轮轨磨耗与滚动接触疲劳。     

轮对运动状态对轮轨滚动接触应力的影响

分析计算了锥型踏面轮对沿轨道滚动接触时轮轨接触几何参数和不同运动状态下的轮轨之间的刚性蠕滑率。根据确定的轮轨接触几何参数和轮轨接触界面之间的蠕滑率,利用非Hertz滚动接触理论分析计算了锥型轮对和钢轨滚动接触斑作用力的分布。再利用弹性力学中Bossinesq-Cerruti力/位移计算公式并借助Gauss数值积分方法,确定了轮轨滚动接触时体内的弹性位移、应变和应力随轮对运动状态变化情况。数据结果为轮轨强度设计提供了重要的参考依据。     

The role and effects of the third body in the wheel–rail interaction

This paper focuses on the presence of the third body, a solid interfacial layer in the wheel–rail contact. This third body is studied from different viewpoints: its presence including composition, thickness and morphology; and its role with respect to its load‐carrying capacity, shearing behaviour, transfer of material and finally global friction coefficient. The general approach is phenomenological and is carried out as closely as possible of the real tribological behaviour of this contact. This paper presents a synthesis of different studies coming from: analysis of specimens taken out periodically from rails and wheels in service, and thus under real contact conditions; and test laboratories, allowing us to impose rolling–sliding conditions with very high precision. From all these studies and results, a better understanding of the role of the third body and its influence on friction, adhesion and damage mechanisms (wear, pits, cracks …) is reached and this is the first step for including its effect in numerical models.     

Numerical simulation of stress and deformation in a railway crossing

Stress/strain analysis is the key to understanding and predicting wear and fatigue behavior of a crossing. By taking into account non-linear material properties, a three dimensional elastic–plastic finite element model, which is composed of wheel, crossing and ties, is presented for the simulation of stress/deformation in a railway crossing. The influences of dynamic wheel load and wheel–crossing contact are examined. Stress, plastic strain and vertical displacement of the simulated crossing under dynamic wheel load at different wheel–crossing contact positions are investigated. The maximum vertical displacement occurs at the wheel–crossing contact region, and decreases gradually from the wheel–crossing contact region to the toe-end and heel-end of the crossing. The maximum von Mises stress and maximum equivalent plastic strain in the crossing increase remarkably with the increase of the train speed. The maximum vertical displacement in the crossing increases obviously and varies linear approximately with the train speed. The maximum von Mises stress, maximum vertical displacement and maximum equivalent plastic strain in the crossing are very sensitive to the axle load and are linear approximately with the axle load.     

Using three-dimensional finite element analysis for simulation of residual stresses in railway wheels

One of the most important issues in railway wheels is residual stresses. It is desirable to produce less residual stresses when possible and to decrease the remaining residual stresses in the wheels. The objective of this paper is to provide an estimation of the residual stresses in the rail wheel caused by the stress field from heat treatment process of a railway wheel. A three-dimensional nonlinear stress analysis model has been applied to estimate stress fields of the railway mono-block wheel in heat treatment process. After forging or casting, railway wheels are heat-treated to induce the desirable circumferential compressive residual stress in the upper rim. Finite element analysis model is presented applying the elastic–plastic finite element analysis for the rail wheel under variable thermal loads. Calculative analysis applying a finite element method (FEM) has been used to predict residual stresses. The quenching and annealing segments of the wheel manufacturing process are simulated using a decoupled heat transfer and stress analysis. Three-dimensional finite element analysis results obtained show good agreement with those achieved in field measurements.     

Fatigue analysis of railway wheel using a multiaxial strain‐based critical‐plane index

A fatigue damage model to assess the development of subsurface fatigue cracks in railway wheels is presented in this paper. A 3‐dimensional finite element model (FEM) is constructed to simulate repeated cycles of contact loading between a railway wheel and a rail. The computational approach includes a hard‐contact over‐closure relationship and an elastoplastic material model with isotropic and kinematic hardening. Results from the simulation are used in a multiaxial critical‐plane fatigue damage analysis. The employed strain‐based critical‐plane fatigue damage approach is based on Fatemi‐Socie fatigue index that takes into account the non‐proportional and out‐of‐phase nature of the multiaxial state of stress occurs when a railway wheel rolls on a rail. It predicts fatigue‐induced micro‐crack nucleation at a depth of about 3.7 mm beneath the wheel tread, as well as the crack plane growth orientation which indicates the possible failure pattern. Additionally, the influence of various factors such as contribution of normal stresses, higher wheel load, and material model have been investigated.