Copper Surface Coatings Formed by the Cold Spray Process: Simulations Based on Empirical and Phenomenological Data

Copper surface coatings produced by the cold spray process have been simulated by means of a two-dimensional computer simulation and compared with experimental data in terms of their porosity. During cold spray, solid state powders containing micrometer-sized particles are accelerated to supersonic velocities and fired onto a substrate, whereupon they undergo plastic deformation and subsequently adhere. Many factors may determine the resultant coating properties, among which include the particle size distribution, velocity, stagnation temperature, and pressure. The approach taken herein differs from those traditionally employed for modeling particle deformations and the subsequent formation of a surface coating. Such approaches rely heavily on the distribution of kinetic energy, elasticity, and fluidity of particles impacting the surface. Consequently, they are computationally impractical to simulate a bulk sample with statistical distributions of particle shape, size, and various experimental conditions. Rather than modeling the physical processes involved in particle deformations, our approach relies on correlating empirical and phenomenological statistical relationships of particle sizes and velocities obtained from experimental data to simulate coatings several hundreds of micrometers thick. In doing so, it enables the porosity of the coating to be related to both the temperature and particle size of the cold spray powders.     

锌粉颗粒形状对机械沉积无结晶镀层结构的影响

以球状锌粉和片状锌粉为原始锌粉借助于机械镀工艺制备了无结晶锌防护层，运用光学显微镜（OM）、扫描电子显微镜（SEM）观察了镀层的结构形貌；采用XRD技术分析了镀层的物相组成；采用贴滤纸法进行了镀层的孔隙率测试。研究结果表明，片状锌粉制备的镀层比球状锌粉制备的镀层表面要平滑、光亮。球状锌粉制备的镀层中锌粉颗粒呈紧密堆积，部分锌粉颗粒发生塑性变形；片状锌粉制备的镀层中的锌粉颗粒呈层片状叠加，镀层中锌粉颗粒没有发生明显塑性变形。两种形状锌粉制备的镀层均为锌基多相混合体系，镀层中没有固溶体、化合物等合金相产生，属于锌基复合镀层。锌粉颗粒形状对镀层中颗粒之间的结合机理没有显著影响，两种镀层中锌粉颗粒间均以机械咬合为主。     

Analysis of tantalum coatings produced by the kinetic spray process

Tantalum (Ta) coatings have been produced using a relatively new process, kinetic spray. Ta starting powders having particle diameters greater than 65 μm are injected into a de Laval-type nozzle, entrained in a supersonic gas stream, and accelerated to high velocities due to drag effects. The particles’ kinetic energy is transformed via plastic deformation into strain and heat on impact with the substrate surface. Particles are not thermally softened or melted, producing relatively low oxide, reduced residual stress, high adhesion and low porosity coatings. Analysis of the mechanical and physical properties of these Ta coatings demonstrated increasing hardness, cohesive adhesion, and decreasing porosity as a function of particle velocity. Comparison between kinetically sprayed coatings and coatings produced using conventional coating methods will be discussed.     

超音速微粒沉积的颗粒连续沉积过程及模拟研究

目的研究超音速微粒沉积过程中,不同颗粒的沉积状态以及后续颗粒的夯实作用对涂层沉积的影响规律。方法采用显式非线性有限元软件LS-DYNA模拟单层颗粒与基体的碰撞,采用自动二维单面接触ASS2D(Automatic 2-D single surface contact)求解接触过程,研究超音速微粒沉积中多颗粒沉积行为、后续颗粒碰撞对涂层成形的影响规律。采用超音速微粒沉积技术在铝合金表面制备Al-Si涂层,通过扫描电子显微镜(SEM)分析涂层的表面/截面形貌,进而验证模型的可靠性。结果多颗粒沉积过程中,颗粒与颗粒之间相互嵌合,形成互锁效应,有利于提高涂层的结合强度。后续颗粒对先沉积颗粒具有夯实作用,夯实作用使颗粒扁平化程度加大,同时使颗粒之间紧密结合,存在夯实作用的颗粒压缩率提高至3倍以上,有效避免了涂层孔隙和裂纹的形成。通过观察所制备的Al-Si涂层的表面/截面形貌,证明模型具有可靠性。结论采用数值模拟方法探讨超音速微粒沉积多颗粒在基体上的变形行为,可为超音速微粒沉积的应用提供理论依据。     

Cold Gas-Sprayed Deposition of Metallic Coatings onto Ceramic Substrates Using Laser Surface Texturing Pre-treatment

Cold spraying enables a variety of metals dense coatings onto metal surfaces. Supersonic gas jet accelerates particles which undergo with the substrate plastic deformation. Different bonding mechanisms can be created depending on the materials. The particle–substrate contact time, contact temperature and contact area upon impact are the parameters influencing physicochemical and mechanical bonds. The resultant bonding arose from plastic deformation of the particle and substrate and temperature increasing at the interface. The objective was to create specific topography to enable metallic particle adhesion onto ceramic substrates. Ceramic did not demonstrate deformation during the impact which minimized the intimate bonds. Laser surface texturing was hence used as prior surface treatment to create specific topography and to enable mechanical anchoring. Particle compressive states were necessary to build up coating. The coating deposition efficiency and adhesion strength were evaluated. Textured surface is required to obtain strong adhesion of metallic coatings onto ceramic substrates. Consequently, cold spray coating parameters depend on the target material and a methodology was established with particle parameters (diameters, velocities, temperatures) and particle/substrate properties to adapt the surface topography. Laser surface texturing is a promising tool to increase the cold spraying applications.     

Effect of Ceramic Particle Velocity on Cold Spray Deposition of Metal-Ceramic Coatings

In this paper, metal-ceramic coatings are cold sprayed taking into account the spray parameters of both metal and ceramic particles. The effect of the ceramic particle velocity on the process of metal-ceramic coating formation and the coating properties is analyzed. Copper and aluminum powders are used as metal components. Two fractions of aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are sprayed in the tests. The ceramic particle velocity is varied by the particle injection into different zones of the gas flow: the subsonic and supersonic parts of the nozzle and the free jet after the nozzle exit. The experiments demonstrated the importance of the ceramic particle velocity for the stability of the process: Ceramic particles accelerated to a high enough velocity penetrate into the coating, while low-velocity ceramic particles rebound from its surface.     

Influence of Helium and Nitrogen Gases on the Properties of Cold Gas Dynamic Sprayed Pure Titanium Coatings

This study investigates the effect of propellant gas, helium, and nitrogen during cold spraying of titanium coatings. Coatings were characterized by SEM and were evaluated for their deposition efficiency (DE), microhardness, and porosity. In selected conditions, three particle velocities were investigated in which for each condition, the propelling gases?? temperature and pressure were attuned to attain similar particle velocities for each gas. Observations show that loosely bonded particles can be detached by high-pressure supersonic gas stream. Selected coatings were characterized by XPS to analyze the occurrence of oxidation and nitridation. Although generally accepted that coating characteristics can be affected by particle temperature, results show that for the same particle velocity, DE and coating density are also a function of substrate temperature. In addition, a thick and fully dense cold sprayed titanium coating was achieved with optimized spray parameters and nozzle using helium. The corresponding average particle velocity was 1173 m/s.     

Cold Spray Coating Deposition Mechanism on the Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymer Substrates

Cold spraying is a successful and promising coating technique for many engineering applications due to its high-rate and high-dense coating development abilities. Nevertheless, their practical use in polymer substrate is still in the fledgling phase. There are very few articles about the cold spray coating on polymers; however, the interaction of metallic particle with the polymer substrate is poorly understood, and thus a thick coating has not successfully been developed on the polymer substrate. In order to rationalize as full as possible the entire behavior of the high velocity particle with the polymer substrate, we used thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer materials as substrates. The particle behaviors with the substrate were observed under various gas pressure and temperature, and with various particles feed rate. The result showed that the particle behaviors were unique with respect to the substrate. Also it was clearly understood that the metal particles not experienced any plastic deformation due to the soft nature of the polymer substrates. The particles attached to the thermoplastic substrate either through adhesive bonding and/or mechanical inter locking, whereas only pure localized fracture observed on the thermosetting substrate and thus no particles attached firmly on the substrate.     

Particle loading effect in cold spray

Cold gas dynamic spray is a line-of-sight, high-rate material deposition process that uses a supersonic flow to accelerate small particles (micron-sized) above a material-dependent critical velocity. When the particles impact the substrate, they plastically deform and bond to form a coating. The objective of this research is to investigate the influence of the particle mass flow rate on the properties of coatings sprayed using the cold spray process. Varying the mass flow rate at which the feedstock particles are fed into the carrier gas stream can change the thickness of the coating. It was shown that poor coating quality (peeling) was not a result of flow saturation but, instead, the result of excessive particle bombardment per unit area on the substrate. By increasing the travel speed of the substrate, this can be overcome and well-bonded dense coatings can be achieved. It has also been shown that by heating the carrier gas flow poor coating quality is avoided. The original version of this paper was published in the CD ROM Thermal Spray Comects: Explore Its Surfacing Potential, Interational Thermal Spray Conference, sponsored by DVS, ASM International, and HW International Institute of Welding, Basel, Switzerland, May 2–4, 2005, DVS-Verlag GmBH, Düsseldorf. Germany.     

Features of Coatings Obtained by Supersonic Laser Deposition

The three types of coatings that can be deposited by supersonic laser deposition, namely coatings built without the melting of the processed powder particles, coatings built from molten particles and coatings made from molten particles and with solid particles embedded in the coating, are discussed. For instance, with no melting of the powder material, a titanium alloy coating without transformation of the structure and with a uniform distribution of the chemical elements in the coating cross-section was obtained. Self-fluxing coatings (NiCrCBSiFe) with high hardness were achieved by melting the powder and mixing it with the substrate. The mixing of the coating metal with the substrate metal led to a significant increase in the concentration of the main alloying elements in the coating–substrate interface. X-ray diffraction analysis also showed that the mixing of the NiCrCBSiFe coating with a medium-carbon steel substrate led to the formation of new Fe_xNi phases, while their concentration decreased through coating thickness.     

Fe粒子参数对低温超音速火焰喷涂层构建的影响

应用LS-DYNA大应变有限元耦合算法,研究了低温超音速火焰喷涂Fe粒子参数对喷涂层构建的影响.结果表明,随着粒子温度或者速度的升高,粒子所含内能的增加,使得涂层界面温度不断升高,粒子的沉积塑性应变发生变化.粒子在不同基体上的沉积特征表明基体硬度将影响沉积粒子与基体界面的结合状态.随着涂层的构成,后续粒子对已沉积粒子的高速撞击使得先沉积的粒子产生二次塑性变形,并引发温变.先沉积的粒子塑性变形引起的粗化作用将降低后续粒子沉积的临界速度.这些将导致涂层在拉应力作用下发生脆性断裂.     

超音速冷气动力喷涂Cu涂层的结合机理

简要介绍了冷喷涂技术特点及工艺原理。分析了超音速Cu颗粒与基材高速撞击沉积过程，借助扫描电镜分析了涂层结合机理：涂层与基体的界面结合以及涂层之间的粒子结合主要以机械咬合为主；涂层之间的结合同时有部分冶金结合和物理结合。     

几种金属基板上冷喷涂铜涂层的试验与模拟

采用自主研制的冷喷涂设备在三种典型基板上进行喷涂试验,相同的工艺参数下,在铜和铝基板上得到良好的铜涂层,而在钢基板上则没有沉积.实验结果表明:涂层与基板界面、涂层内部颗粒界面结合良好,铜涂层组织致密,显微硬度高达150HV0.1;从涂层表面形貌扫描电镜(SEM)照片中可以观察到射流状的金属,说明颗粒发生了巨大变形,经计算知颗粒在碰撞中压缩率达69%;粉末和涂层的X射线衍射(XRD)结果表明铜粉末在冷喷涂过程中没有发生氧化.同时,数值模拟了铜颗粒与三种基板的碰撞过程,讨论了形成有效结合的判断准则,根据该准则,计算出铜颗粒在铜、铝、钢基板上的临界沉积速度分别为600m/s,500m/s,800m/s,从而解释了铜颗粒在三种基板上不同的沉积行为.     

Impacting Behavior of Large Oxidized Copper Particles in Cold Spraying

In a previous study, it has been experimentally demonstrated that surface oxide films of metallic particles have significant influence on the properties of cold-sprayed coatings. To clearly reveal the underlying mechanism, this study focused further on the effect of particle oxidation on the deposition behavior of oxidized Cu powder. Results show that the presence of the oxide films on the particles’ surface can inhibit the plastic deformation of the particles. In addition, results concerning the morphologies and oxygen content of the rebounded particles show that the particles have experienced large plastic deformation that results in the break-up of the oxide films during the impacting process. Correspondingly, the hardness of the coating deposited with the oxidized powder is a little lower than that with the annealed powder because of the inferior plastic deformation and strain-hardening effect.     

Sliding wear behavior of the supersonic plasma sprayed WC-Co coating in oil containing sand

To improve the wear resistance of the cylinder liner of the engines operating in desert area, the tungsten carbide-based cermet coating (WC-12wt.%Co) was produced using the supersonic plasma spraying technique. The microstructure and phase composition of the as-sprayed coating were evaluated. The effect of sand size in lubricant on the friction and wear behavior of the coating under the lubrication of oil containing sand was investigated on a ball-on-disk tribometer. Characterization of the coating shows that the coating possesses dense microstructure with low level of porosity. The decarburization of WC is limited for the high particle velocity of the supersonic plasma spraying and only a few of W₂C phases are observed in the coating. With the higher hardness and the good adhesion with the substrate the sprayed coating exhibits a better wear resistance compared with the gray casting iron used in the current cylinder liner. Micro-structural examination shows that the wear of coating is dominated by micro-cutting, WC particles pull-out and sub-surface indentation-induced sub-surface cracking, while the main wear mechanism of the gray casting iron is micro-cutting and plastic deformation.     

Difference in particle characteristics and coating properties between spraying metallic and ceramic powder cored wires

The sprayed particles of metallic and cermet wires were collected to analyze the atomization state of the particles in arc spraying forming, the microstructure and properties of metallic and ceramic coatings were investigated and compared. Particle size analyzer was used for quantifying particle size. The XRD, SEM and optical microscope（OM） were used to analyze the phase composition and microstructure of the particles and coatings. From the experimental results, some difference of particle characteristics was established between the spraying metallic and ceramic cored wires, and the microstructure and properties of coatings depend strongly on the particles behaviors. The result shows that Fe-TiB2/Al2O3 composite coating has a high potential for abrasive wear applications.     

Preparation and characterization of magnesium coating deposited by cold spraying

Magnesium (Mg) and its alloys have a great potential as structural materials due to their beneficial combination of high strength to weight ratio, high thermal conductivity and good machinability. However, few works about Mg coatings fabricated by cold spraying can be found in the literature. Thus, Mg coatings prepared at different main gas temperatures by cold spraying were investigated as well as their microstructure, phase structure, oxygen content and microhardness. The critical velocity of the particle was evaluated through numerical simulations. The particle deformation behavior and bonding mechanism were discussed. The result of the oxygen content measurement shows that the oxygen contents of coatings did not increase compared with that of the feedstock powder. The simulation results show that the critical velocity of Mg particles was in the range from 653 m/s to 677 m/s. The observation of the coating fracture morphology shows that the formation of the coating was due to the intensive plastic deformation and mechanical interlocking. The microhardness of the coating increased with the increase of the main gas temperature from 350 °C to 450 °C due to the decrease of the coating porosity.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Warm-Sprayed Titanium Coating on Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Plastic

Polymer materials are increasingly dominating various engineering fields. Recently, polymer-based composite materials’ surface performances—in particular, surface in relative motion—have been improved markedly by thermal spray coating. Despite this recent progress, the deposition of high-strength materials—producing a coating thickness of the order of more than 500 μm—remains highly challenging. In the present work, a highly dense and thick titanium coating was successfully deposited onto the carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) substrate using a newly developed high-pressure warm spray (WS) system. The coating properties, such as hardness (300 ± 20 HV) and adhesion strength (8.1 ± 0.5 MPa), were evaluated and correlated with the microstructures of the coating. In addition, a wipe-test and in situ particle velocity and temperature measurement were performed to validate the particle deposition behavior as a function of the nitrogen flow rate in the WS system. It was found that the microstructures, deposition efficiency, and mechanical properties of the coatings were highly sensitive to nitrogen flow rates. The coating porosity increased with increasing nitrogen flow rates; however, the highest density was observed for nitrogen flow rate of 1000 standard liters per minute (SLM) samples due to the high fraction of semi-molten particles in the spray stream.     

The strength of coating in the lost foam casting process

The functions of the coating in the lost foam casting (LFC) process include developing the strength to support unbonded sand and providing permeable channels to permeate the decomposed expandable polystyrene pattern in-mould. The strengths of coatings developed at room temperature differ from those at a high temperature owing to the heat effect introduced by the filling metal. In this study, we examine the effect of shape and size of refractory particle, and type and added weight per cent of binder in the coating on the strength of the coating.

Experimental results indicate that for either a given particle size or a given wt% of a binder, the coating using flaky alumina and acrylic resin (binder B) develops the greatest strength at room temperature and the greatest hot strength. If a polyvinyl acetate (binder A) is used, the coating generally develops an inferior strength to that of acrylic resin (binder B). For a given resin used in the coating, angular silica used as the refractory particle decreases the strength of the coating at room temperature and its hot strength. In addition, pouring trials demonstrate that if alumina particles (74 μm, mesh No. 200) are added to the coating, the optimum wt% of acrylic resin is 0.25% to 1%. Those coatings produce sound and smooth grey iron plate castings, (5 mm in thickness). Moreover, the optimum wt% of acrylic resin is 0.25% for those producing sound and smooth thick plate castings, (20 mm in thickness).     

Plasticity of electrospark

Experimental work to determine the contact rigidity of thick copper-bearing coatings formed by electrospark erosion has been carried out. It is established that the investigated coatings are porous and their density can be increased by plastic deformation without destroying the surface layer. The dependences of the decrease of the thickness of the electrospark coating (densification) on the loading force and the rigidity of the coating were obtained by the calculation-experiment method.