Effects of simultaneously observing and making gestures while studying grammar animations on cognitive load and learning

This study examined whether simultaneously observing and making gestures while studying animations would lighten cognitive load and facilitate the acquisition of grammatical rules. In contrast to our hypothesis, results showed that children in the gesturing condition performed worse on the posttest than children in the non-gesturing, control condition. A more detailed analysis of the data revealed an expertise reversal effect, indicating that this negative effect on posttest performance materialized for children with lower levels of general language skills, but not for children with higher levels of general language skills. The finding that for children with lower language ability, cognitive load did not decrease as they saw more animations provided additional support for this expertise reversal effect. These findings suggest that the combination of observing and making gestures may have imposed extraneous cognitive load on the lower ability children, which they could not accommodate together with the relatively high intrinsic load imposed by the learning task.     

Do students benefit equally from interactive computer simulations regardless of prior knowledge levels?

The purposes of this study were to examine the effects of two types of interactive computer simulations and of prior knowledge levels on concept comprehension, cognitive load, and learning efficiency. Seventy-two 5th grade students were sampled from two elementary schools. They were divided into two groups (high and low) based on prior knowledge levels, and each group was divided into two treatment groups (a low-interactive simulation group and a high-interactive simulation group). The dependent variables were concept comprehension, cognitive load, and learning efficiency. The results showed that, for students with high prior knowledge levels, high-interactive simulations, rather than low-interactive simulations, resulted in significantly increased comprehension scores, decreased cognitive load scores, and higher learning efficiency. On the other hand, among students with low prior knowledge levels, the low-interactive simulation group did not demonstrate significantly increased comprehension scores, but they did show lower cognitive load scores and higher learning efficiency than the high-interactive simulation group.     

Exploring the cognitive loads of high-school students as they learn concepts in web-based environments

This study measured high-school learners' cognitive load as they interacted with different web-based curriculum components, and examined the interactions between cognitive load and web-based concept learning. Participants in this study were 105 11th graders from an academic senior high school in Taiwan. An online, multimedia curriculum on the topic of global warming, which lasted for four weeks, provided the learning context. After students worked through the curriculum, their feelings about the degree of mental effort that it took to complete the learning tasks were measured by self-report on a 9-point Likert scale. An online test and the flow-map method were applied to assess participants' concept achievements. The results showed that curriculum components such as scientific articles, online notebooks, flash animations and the online test induced a relatively high cognitive load, and that a lower cognitive load resulted in better concept achievement. Also, students appeared to adopt different learning approaches that were corresponding to different levels of cognitive load.     

Can the use of cognitive and metacognitive self-regulated learning strategies be predicted by learners’ levels of prior knowledge in hypermedia-learning environments?

Research on self-regulated learning (SRL) in hypermedia-learning environments is a growing area of interest, and prior knowledge can influence how students interact with these systems. One hundred twelve (N = 112) undergraduate students’ interactions with MetaTutor, a multi-agent, hypermedia-based learning environment, were investigated, including how prior knowledge affected their use of SRL strategies. We expected that students with high prior knowledge would engage in significantly more cognitive and metacognitive SRL strategies, engage in different sequences of SRL strategies, spend more time engaging in SRL processes, and visit more pages that were relevant to their sub-goals than students with low prior knowledge. Results showed significant differences in the total use of SRL strategies between prior knowledge groups, and more specifically, revealed significant differences in the use of each metacognitive strategy (e.g., judgment of learning), but not each cognitive strategy (e.g., taking notes) between prior knowledge groups. Results also revealed different sequences of use of SRL strategies between prior knowledge groups, and that students spent different amounts of time engaging in SRL processes; however, all students visited similar numbers of relevant pages. These results have important implications on designing multi-agent, hypermedia environments; we can design pedagogical agents that adapt to students’ learning needs, based on their prior knowledge levels.     

How flipped learning based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning affects students' academic achievements

The study aims to identify the effect of a flipped classroom approach designed according to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning on the academic achievements of eighth‐grade students (aged 14 years) in Saudi Arabia in computer science. To this end, a quasi‐experimental design was used, with a sample of 67 students; 33 students were assigned to the experimental group, whereas 34 comprised the control group. The experimental group was subjected to the flipped classroom approach, whereas the control group was given direct instruction. To measure student achievements, an instrument that measures cognitive skills based on Revised Bloom's taxonomy levels was designed. Findings revealed a positive effect on the experimental group's achievement levels with respect to Bloom's higher order thinking skills, that is, applying, analysing, and evaluating. No difference was found between the two groups in terms of academic achievements at the remembering and understanding levels of Bloom's taxonomy. Moreover, learners with low prior knowledge showed a higher improvement in academic achievements compared with those with high prior knowledge. This corresponds to the assumption of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning that learners with low prior knowledge would benefit from its principles more than learners with high prior knowledge.     

Strategic learning from expository animations: Short- and mid-term effects

In an experimental study, we investigated whether making use of a cognitive learning strategy (1) improves learning from different expository animations, (2) leads to an acquisition of knowledge which is available beyond the learning period, and (3) equally benefits students with low and high cognitive ability alike. A total of 152 sixth graders participated in the study: 69 students learned from an animation about the dances of honeybees and 83 students learned from an animation about sailing. With respect to both animations, the students who made use of the learning strategy significantly outperformed the students who had to write a summary. Effect sizes are medium to large. The beneficial effects of the learning strategy were also verified one week after the learning took place. The results of this study do not support the assumption that students with low and high cognitive ability benefit differently from the strategy.     

A novel method to monitoring changes in cognitive load in video‐based learning

One of the golden rules in instructional design methods is to optimize the use of working memory capacity and avoid cognitive overload. The study of cognitive load has historically relied on one's introspection. However, it is difficult to capture changes in cognitive load levels during learning sensitively. This paper suggests an approach to investigating dynamic changes in cognitive load by using a pupillometry. With the method, this study explores the effects of learners' prior knowledge and task complexity on cognitive load. An experiment was conducted on two groups of students (N = 19) with distinct levels of prior knowledge. In the experimental session, participants watched a video lecture on a mathematics proposition, while being eye‐tracked. The lecture consists of sections, which can be either a high task complexity or a low task complexity based on elements they have. Pupil dilations acquired in each section were used to explore the time course of cognitive load. To formulate cognitive load patterns, a time‐series clustering was used. The research conducted a chi‐square analysis to test differences in cognitive load patterns by prior knowledge and task complexity. Results show that pupil dilation patterns can be applied to monitor changes in cognitive load during learning.     

The attention-guiding effect and cognitive load in the comprehension of animations

To be effective, instructional animations should avoid causing high extraneous cognitive load imposed by the high attentional requirements of selecting and processing relevant elements. In accordance with the attention-guiding principle (Bétrancourt, 2005), a study was carried out concerning the impact of cueing on cognitive load and comprehension of animations which depicted a dynamic process in a neurobiology domain. Cueing consisted of zooming in important information at each step of the process. Thirty-six undergraduate psychology students were exposed to an animation three times. Half of the participants received an animation without cueing while the other half received the same animation with cueing. Measures of cognitive load and comprehension performance (questions on isolated elements and on high-element interactivity material) were administered twice, after one and three exposures to the animation. The analyses revealed two main results. First, extraneous cognitive load was reduced by cueing after three exposures. Second, retention of the isolated elements was improved in both animation groups, whereas comprehension of high-element interactive material (i.e., the causal relations between elements) increased only in the cueing condition. Furthermore, a problem solving task showed that cueing supported the development of a more elaborate mental model.     

Internet cognitive failure and fatigue relevant to learners' self‐regulation and learning progress in English vocabulary with a calibration scheme

To determine the factors of learning effectiveness in English vocabulary learning when using a calibration scheme, this study developed a freshman English mobile device application (for iPhone 4) for students with low levels of English proficiency to practise vocabulary in the beginning of their Freshman English course. Data were collected and validated from 243 subjects for confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. The findings revealed that Internet cognitive failure (i.e., trait cognitive disability) was positively correlated to Internet cognitive fatigue (i.e., state cognitive disability). Both types of Internet cognitive disability were negatively correlated to self‐regulation in English vocabulary learning (SREVL). SREVL was positively correlated to the degree of learning improvement. The findings implied that the use of a calibration design for mobile English vocabulary learning could benefit students with low levels of Internet cognitive disability but high levels of SREVL.     

Hypermedia learning and prior knowledge: domain expertise vs. system expertise

Abstract Prior knowledge is often argued to be an important determinant in hypermedia learning, and may be thought of as including two important elements: domain expertise and system expertise. However, there has been a lack of research considering these issues together. In an attempt to address this shortcoming, this paper presents a study that examines how domain expertise and system expertise influence students' learning performance in, and perceptions of, a hypermedia system. The results indicate that participants with lower domain knowledge show a greater improvement in their learning performance than those with higher domain knowledge. Furthermore, those who enjoy using the Web more are likely to have positive perceptions of non-linear interaction. Discussions on how to accommodate the different needs of students with varying levels of prior knowledge are provided based on the results.     

Improving learning from animated soccer scenes: Evidence for the expertise reversal effect

In two experiments, we investigated how animation of play (soccer) should be designed in order to avoid the high cognitive load due to the fleeting nature of information. Using static pictures and altering the animation’s presentation speed have been proposed as instructional strategies to reduce learners’ cognitive load. In the first experiment, we tested the effect of static vs. animated presentations on learning. The results indicated that novices benefited more from the static presentation whereas experts benefited more from the animated presentation. The second experiment investigated the effect of low vs. normal vs. high levels of presentation speed on learning. The results showed that novices profited more from the low presentation speed while experts profited more from the normal and high presentation speeds. Thus both experiments demonstrated the occurrences of the expertise reversal effect. Findings suggest that the effectiveness of instructional strategies depends on levels of soccer players’ expertise.     

Facilitating comprehension of non‐native English speakers during lectures in English with STR‐texts

We provided texts generated by speech‐to text‐recognition (STR) technology for non‐native English speaking students during lectures in English in order to test whether STR‐texts were useful for enhancing students' comprehension of lectures. To this end, we carried out an experiment in which 60 participants were randomly assigned to a control group (i.e., 30 participants who learned without STR‐texts) and an experimental group (i.e., 30 participants who learned with STR‐texts). Our results showed that the participants in the experimental group outperformed those in the control group. Our second objective was to explore the effectiveness of STR‐texts on the learning performance of the experimental‐group participants with different levels of English as a Foreign Language ability, that is, high and low. The results showed that the low ability students had lower self‐efficacy than the high ability students. The results also showed no significant effect of STR‐texts on the post‐test scores of the low and high ability participants after controlling for the effect of English as a Foreign Language ability. No significant difference was found in cognitive load and anxiety of the low and high ability participants. Based on the implications of our findings, several suggestions are made for the teaching and research communities.     

Effects of different ratios of worked solution steps and problem solving opportunities on cognitive load and learning outcomes

A crucial challenge for instructional designers is to determine the amount of support that is most beneficial for learning. This experiment investigated effects of different ratios of worked solution steps (high assistance) and to-be-solved problem steps (low assistance) on cognitive skill acquisition in geometry. High-school students (N = 125) worked on a geometry lesson in a Cognitive Tutor under five different ratios (from zero worked steps and five to-be-solved steps to four worked steps and one to-be-solved step). Effects on cognitive load and learning outcomes were assessed. We expected the effectiveness of different ratios to vary with the type of learning outcomes (i.e., procedural vs. conceptual knowledge) and the difficulty of the to-be-learned principles. Results showed that for procedural knowledge (but not for conceptual knowledge) problem solving alone was most beneficial for the acquisition of procedural knowledge related to an easy principle. For a difficult principle, no ratio of worked steps and problem solving showed an advantage over another. Problem solving induced more extraneous load than studying worked examples. Thus, in determining optimal amounts of guidance type of knowledge and difficulty of the single to-be learned knowledge chunks should be considered.     

Explaining the segmentation effect in learning from animations: The role of pausing and temporal cueing

Segmentation of animations, that is presenting them in pieces rather than as a continuous stream of information, has been shown to have a beneficial effect on cognitive load and learning for novices. Two different explanations of this segmentation effect have been proposed. Firstly, pauses are usually inserted between the segments, which may give learners extra time to perform necessary cognitive processes. Secondly, because segmentation divides animations into meaningful pieces, it provides a form of temporal cueing which may support learners in perceiving the underlying structure of the process or procedure depicted in the animation. This study investigates which of these explanations is the most plausible. Secondary education students (N = 161) studied animations on probability calculation, after having been randomly assigned to one of four conditions: non-segmented animations, animations segmented by pauses only, animations segmented by temporarily darkening the screen only, and animations segmented by both pauses and temporarily darkening the screen. The results suggest that both pauses and cues play a role in the segmentation effect, but in a different way.     

Relative effectiveness of animated and static diagrams: An effect of learner prior knowledge

This paper investigates the relationship between instructional effectiveness of animated vs. static diagrams and levels of learner expertise in the task domain of transforming graphs of simple linear and quadratic functions. It was demonstrated on many occasions that instructional formats that are effective for low-knowledge learners could be ineffective, or even deleterious, for high-knowledge learners, and vice versa (the expertise reversal effect). The levels of learner (university students) expertise in this study were measured using an online rapid diagnostic method, a rapid verification technique, that involves presenting learners with a series of possible solution steps reflecting various stages of the solution procedure and asking them to rapidly verify the suggested steps. The results indicated a significant interaction between levels of learner expertise and instructional formats. Novice learners benefited more from static diagrams than from animated diagrams, while more knowledgeable learners benefited more from animated rather than static diagrams. A theoretical explanation of the effect is suggested within the framework of cognitive load theory.     

Effects of digital dictionary format on incidental acquisition of spelling knowledge and cognitive load during second language learning: Click-on vs. key-in dictionaries

Recent research has shown that students involved in computer-based second language learning prefer to use a digital dictionary in which a word can be looked up by clicking on it with a mouse (i.e., click-on dictionary) to a digital dictionary in which a word can be looked up by typing it on a keyboard (i.e., key-in dictionary). This study investigated whether digital dictionary format also differentially affects students' incidental acquisition of spelling knowledge and cognitive load during second language learning. A comparison between a click-on dictionary condition, a key-in dictionary condition, and a non-dictionary control condition for 45 Taiwanese students learning English as a foreign language revealed that learners who used a key-in dictionary invested more time investment on dictionary consultation than learners who used a click-on dictionary. However, on a subsequent unexpected spelling test the key-in group invested less time investment and performed better than the click-on group. The theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

基于阅读认知诊断的学生表现预测

面向学生的表现预测（试题得分）是在线教育领域重要的研究课题。但传统认知诊断的预测准确性较低,协同过滤方法难以保证预测结果的可解释性。此外,由于目前方法预测时大多利用了学生的试题作答记录,因而不能预测无作答记录的学生在试题上的表现。学生作答试题之前,通常会阅读一些辅助性文本类学习材料。阅读认知诊断即学生阅读学习材料的内容往往可以反映出学生的知识状态（知识点掌握情况）,从而有助于预测学生表现。为此,提出一种基于阅读认知诊断的知识状态建模方法。利用学生阅读学习材料的内容,量化其对学习材料的潜在认知程度。结合教育学假设,量化学习材料的难度。利用上述两个量化结果,根据项目反应理论,计算出学生对学习材料的实际掌握程度,据此建模学生的知识状态并预测其在试题上的表现。在实际数据集上进行实验,实验结果表明所提方法可以保证预测结果的准确性与可解释性,也可以预测出无作答记录的学生表现。     

The role of spatial descriptions in learning from multimedia

In the reported experiment we investigated how spatial information conveyed in an expository text influenced multimedia learning. It was based on a 2 × 2-design with the degree of spatial information given in the text (high vs. low spatial text) and the presentation format (written text-only vs. written text + animation) as between-subjects factors. As dependent variables learning outcomes as well as self-reported cognitive load were assessed. The results revealed that there was a multimedia effect with regard to learning outcomes only for low spatial text, but not for high spatial text. Moreover, the cognitive load measures showed an overall multimedia effect irrespective of the degree of spatial information conveyed by the text (i.e., higher cognitive load ratings in the text-only conditions). These results can be explained as a special instance of the redundancy effect as well as a consequence of processing interference within visuo-spatial working memory.