真空中绝缘子闪络前表面带电现象的仿真研究

真空中绝缘子发生沿面闪络之前存在绝缘子表面的带电现象,该现象对闪络的发展具有重要影响,到目前为止对该现象进行实时测量还存在很大的难度。基于二次电子发射雪崩(secondary electron emission avalanche,SEEA)模型,利用Monte Carlo法研究了真空中圆柱型和圆台型绝缘子在闪络前表面电荷密度的二维分布。仿真中采用了氧化铝陶瓷、聚四氟乙烯(PTFE)、聚酰亚胺(PI)以及聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯(PMMA)等不同绝缘材料。考察了绝缘材料、施加电压以及圆锥绝缘子不同锥角对表面电荷密度和分布的影响。仿真结果表明,在靠近阴极处的绝缘子表面存在小区域的负电荷区,而后变为较大区域的正电荷区;二次电子发射系数较小的绝缘子表面的正电荷密度较小;随外施电压升高,负电荷的密度及区域减小,而正电荷的密度及区域增大,且正电荷区域的峰值向靠近阴极方向移动;圆台绝缘子的锥角为负时其表面正电荷密度大于锥角为正时的情况,当锥角在-22.5°~-30°之间时表面正电荷密度达到最大,而此时对应的闪络电压最低。仿真结果与实验结果有较好的对应关系。     

Delay characteristics of surface charging on a cylindricalinsulator in vacuum

This paper describes the temporal characteristics of surface charging on a cylindrical insulator made of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) resin or alumina ceramic. The insulator is subjected to a dc voltage step or to a trapezoidal voltage in vacuum. The charging is observed by using an electrostatic probe located at the surface of the cathode close to the triple junction where the insulator, cathode and vacuum meet. The probe signal shows a step increase associated with the charging. The interval between the voltage rise and the charging, which is defined as the delay time of charging in this paper, ranges from 10 ^-5 s to 10 s depending on the material and the applied voltage. It also depends on the condition of the insulator-cathode interface, the electrical prestress and the surface roughness of the insulator. Among these factors, the surface roughness has the largest effect on the delay time. Two-dimensional Monte Carlo simulation based on the secondary emission electron avalanche model has been performed to analyze the charging progress. During the delay period, positive charge accumulates on the surface of the insulator near the cathode, which further accelerates the charging     

Charging characteristics and electric field distribution on alumina as affected by triple junctions in vacuum

This paper describes the dependence of the charging characteristics on the electric field distribution on the alumina (Al/sub 2/O/sub 3/) surface as affected by the triple junction in vacuum. For HV electrical insulation design of vacuum interrupter, surface flashover in vacuum is very important problem to be solved. Attention should be paid to the fact that the insulation characteristics on the dielectric surface are strongly influenced by field emission of electrons from the triple junction and the accumulated charges on the dielectric surface. In order to clarify the charging mechanism, we measured the charging characteristics for various types of triple junctions. In particular, we focused on the influence of the electric field distribution along the solid dielectrics and near the cathode triple junction (CTJ) on the charging characteristics. The results confirmed that the electric field distribution strongly affected the 2-dimensional (2D) distribution of the surface charge on the dielectric sample. Consequently, it was found that positive charging was generated on alumina, when the incident angle of the electric line of force on the alumina surface became >60/spl deg/.     

High field performance of thin-wall spacers in a vacuum gap

This paper reports the electrical conduction and breakdown characteristics of thin-wall ceramic spacers for a field emission display (FED). These spacers bridge two thin-film electrodes, which represent the FED cathode and the phosphor anode in a FED. Techniques to set up a high aspect-ratio thin-wall spacer without glue were developed. An extra-low light detection 3D-imaging system using an intensified CCD camera was developed which was able to identify the location of low-level light activity in the stressed vacuum-gap, indicative of imminent device failure. Thin wall spacers made of various ceramics were investigated extensively. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) surface investigation showed that zirconia spacers exhibited a smoother surface morphology compared to all other materials studied; however, their breakdown voltages were rather low. The breakdown voltages of alumina spacers were severely limited by triple junction effects. At HV, breakdown at the edge of the thin-film electrode was observed. This edge breakdown can be used to explain the saturation of the breakdown voltage vs. vacuum gap spacing. The results of this work are highly encouraging in that an ~1000 μm tall spacer can support ~18 kV dc, at least 80% above the expected operational voltage of HV FED. The spacer breakdown voltage is expected to improve through surface treatment and elimination of the electrode edge-breakdown and triple junction effects     

Optical investigation of AC preflashover of alumina ceramic in vacuum

Optical phenomena accompanying the preflashover along a planar metal-alumina-metal structure were investigated under stepped AC voltage in vacuum. Two kinds of electrode contacts with and without sputtered gold films were employed. For sputtered alumina, the luminescence became observable at /spl sim/1 kV/sub peak/, and revealed two stages depending on the amplitude of applied voltage. For non-sputtered alumina the optical emission appeared at a much higher voltage and presented irregular and discrete light pulses. The energy band at the metal-alumina interface for the two kinds of electrode contacts is responsible for the relevant optical mechanisms. For non-sputtered contact, the light emission was initiated by field electron emission from the triple junction. While for the sputtered contact, prior to the electron emission, electrons/holes could be injected from electrodes into the surface layer of alumina and electroluminescence phenomena occur due to the radiative electron-hole recombination. Injected electrons form a long-term negative space charge region away from each electrode and hence at a critical applied voltage, the trapped electrons are detrapped resulting in intense light emission. These processes play a significant role in the development of flashover.     

Real-time observation of surface charging on a cylindricalinsulator in vacuum

By using an electrostatic probe located close to the triple junction on the cathode surface, we have conducted real-time observations of the change in electric field due to surface charging of an insulator in vacuum. A cylindrical sample made of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) or Al₂O₃ has been exposed to HVDC. An axisymmetric simulation based on the secondary electron emission electron avalanche (SEEA) theory has been performed. The measured results agreed with the simulation concerning the polarity of the accumulated charge as well as the field strength. The simulation also predicts the inception of charging at a voltage well below the measured flashover voltage. These results clearly support the SEEA theory as a macroscopic mechanism of surface charging of an insulator in vacuum     

Charging characteristics of a solid insulator in vacuum under AC voltage excitation

We have investigated charging and flashover characteristics of a polymeric or glass insulator exposed to AC voltage in vacuum in order to develop compact and reliable high voltage VCBs (vacuum circuit breakers). This paper focuses on charging characteristics of a cylindrical model insulator. The charging of an insulator is investigated using an electrostatic probe that measures the electric field near the triple junction on the grounded electrode. This method allows a time-resolved measurement of the charging process. The insulator was made of borosilicate, fused quartz or polymetyl methacrylate, and was in the shape of a right cylinder with 10 mm in thickness. It has been clarified that the charging is characterized by three sequential states; initiation, quasi-stable and stable states, and that the polarity of the charge is positive for these states irrespective of the voltage phase. The charging characteristics with AC voltage are compared to our previous results with DC voltage excitation. We find that the charge magnitude at the stable state coincides with that obtained by DC. The electric field on the grounded electrode, and therefore the charge magnitude, decreases with the surface roughness, and decreases as the insulation strength is increased. A computer simulation has been conducted to investigate the quasi-stable state, which clarifies that the transition in surface charge distribution being synchronous to the voltage phase is responsible for causing the quasi-stable state.     

Space charge formation in γ-irradiated low densitypolyethylene

Energetic ionizing radiation can alter the chemical structure of polymeric materials and also may give rise to the presence of trapped charge within the material, the trapping characteristics of which may be influenced by these radiation-induced structural alterations. In the present work, the formation of space charge in γ-irradiated LDPE (low-density polyethylene) was investigated using the technique of a LIPP (laser induced pressure pulse). Specimens of LDPE, ~350 μm thick, were irradiated in a ⁶⁰Co γ-source in room air to various doses and the results indicate that space charge distributions are dependent on both dose and electric stress, including the length of time during which the stress is applied. At low doses (⩽10 kGy), there is a large amount of positive charge adjacent to the cathode, leading to stress enhancement at the interface. Higher applied stress serves to extend the positive charge towards the anode. At high doses (⩾50 kGy), the charge distribution is more complicated than that for low doses. Here there is initially negative charge present adjacent to the cathode and a substantial positive charge adjacent to the anode. With the passage of time, however, there is a polarity change from negative to positive at the cathode and a decrease in the density of the positive charge at the anode, with negative charge in the middle of the sample     

Surface charging and flashover on insulators in vacuum

Investigations have been carried out on right cylindrical Teflon spacers in vacuum under dc stress to study the effect of cathode geometry on surface charging and flashover. Three cathode support arrangements were used. Type 1 involved a recess in the cathode into which the spacer was located, type 2 was a simple flat plate cathode, while type 3 had a raised insert on the cathode surface over which the spacer was located. In all cases the surface charge density and distribution is primarily dependent upon the magnitude of the electric stress. Using the type 1 arrangement inception for charge deposition was always ~10 kV even when the spacer had been subjected to repeated flashovers. At applied voltages higher than this the density of the charge, which was fairly uniformly distributed around the surface, was more or less proportional to the applied voltage. For the type 2 and type 3 arrangements, a distinct, uniformly distributed negative charge of ⩽20 μC/m² was always detected at low values of applied stress and at a fairly well-defined transition voltage this gave way to a distribution which was substantially uniform in the case of type 2 but quite filamentary in type 3, and both involved the deposition of positive charge     

Charging of Polymeric Surfaces by Positive Impulse Corona

This paper focuses on analysis of charging of polymeric surfaces by means of impulse corona discharges in air. Internal (space charge densities and electric fields) as well as external (circuit current) characteristics of corona in a point-plane electrode configuration are investigated by means of computer simulations. Two types of onset positive corona modes, namely positive glow corona and burst pulse corona are identified. The developed and verified computer model is further used to study corona charging of a 2 mm thick polymeric material sample. Both the mechanism of charge deposition and distribution of deposited charges on the surface are dependent on the mode of the corona discharge used. In the case of glow corona, charge generation is limited to the anode region and the generated charges move towards the sample surface under applied electric field. Thereafter the deposited charge cloud expands radially along a portion of the surface with fairly constant concentration. In the case of burst pulse corona, series of positive charge clouds start from the anode and move towards the sample surface in a wave-like manner. Each burst contributes to the deposited charge, which spreads over the surface less extensively than that observed during glow corona charging.     

Real-time and high-speed measurements of charging processes on dielectric surface in vacuum

In order to investigate the charging mechanisms of solid dielectrics in vacuum, we constructed real-time and high-speed measurement systems for charge density, current pulse, light emission and applied voltage. By applying a negative DC ramped voltage to an electrode with a cathode triple-junction (TJ), we measured the temporal variation of surface charge accumulation and current pulse waveforms expressing the electron emission from TJ, by electrostatic probes. From the measurement results, we explain the step like charging process and propose an electron emission model by taking the electric field and its relaxation by charging into account. In addition, we elucidate the relationship between the charging process and the location of electron emission.     

Optical studies of surface discharge under dc voltage in vacuum

Utilizing a high-sensitivity photomultiplier tube (PMT) and an intensified charge coupled device (ICCD) camera, the light emission from the surface of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and alumina ceramic samples was investigated in vacuum under a stepped dc voltage in order to study the initiation and development of surface discharge. Different from the classical electrode contact by butting electrodes on a sample directly, to achieve a fine contact between electrodes and the surface of a sample, the metalized electrodes were employed by sputtering two additional gold contacts on each sample in advance. The two types of materials showed quite different optical characteristics. It was suggested that there were several processes possibly related to the initiation mechanism of the surface discharge. Besides the field electron emission from the cathode triple junction (CTJ) for the classical electrode contact, there were charge injection and transport in the surface states of dielectrics, and charge trapping and detrapping phenomena. Electroluminescence (EL) emission was emitted due to the radiative recombination of electrons and holes injected. These processes were strongly dependent on the electrode contact manner and the surface states of insulating materials.     

The breakdown mechanism of poly-p-xylylene film. Prestress effectson the breakdown strength

Impulse and dc breakdown strengths of 4 μm thick poly-p-xylylene (PPX) films were 5.9 and 4.1 MV/cm, respectively. They were independent of temperature in the temperature range from -60 to 60°C. dc prestressing for a long time (t_p=60 s) reduced impulse breakdown strength for both the same and the opposite polarity. But dc prestressing for a short time (t_p<1 s) increased impulse breakdown strength for the same polarity. These results were explained by positive space charge in PPX film. It was also concluded that positive charge carrier injected from the anode, spread in a 4 μm thick PPX film during a short time     

Charging characteristics on dielectric surface by differentcharging processes in vacuum

This paper describes charging characteristics on a dielectric surface in vacuum by electron irradiation and field emission by a triple junction under negative and positive DC HV applications. The authors measured the 2-D distribution of electrostatic charging on a dielectric surface in situ. Experimental results revealed that the negative charge distribution caused by the electron beam had a conical shape over the whole surface. On the other hand, for a triple junction, it was an acute distribution around the triple junction. Moreover, they quantitatively investigated the difference of the 2-D charging distribution, using certain shape parameters, between the two charging processes mentioned above. In addition, they examined the time decay characteristics of the surface potential on the dielectric in vacuum     

Switching characteristics of a triggered vacuum gap employing a trigger electrode in the respective main electrodes

Both switching time and minimum firing voltage of a triggered vacuum gap employing a trigger electrode in the cathode and anode (double triggered vacuum gap) were measured. The double triggered vacuum gap was operated below 100 V independent of the high voltage main electrode polarity (positive or negative). This minimum firing voltage was lower than that of the conventional triggered vacuum gap. The switching time is approximately 0.5 μs in the range 3 to 18 kV. The conventional triggered vacuum gap has a trigger electrode that is placed at the center of the grounded main electrode. The polarity of the main electrode affected switching time characteristics. A trigger electrode was added to the high voltage main electrode. The double triggered vacuum gap was only slightly influenced by the polarity of the high voltage main electrode when both main electrodes were triggered at the same time.     

纳秒级脉冲电压作用下聚丙烯膜反极性充电现象的研究

采用针-板电极系统，对无纺聚丙烯过滤膜纳秒级脉冲电压作用下电介质膜空间电荷形成过程进行研究。发现了聚丙烯膜积累的空间电荷与所加脉冲电压极性相反的聚合物膜反极性充电现象。正极性脉冲峰值越高越容易引起聚合物膜反极性充电。峰值足够高且脉宽足够窄的负极性脉冲也导致反极性充电。脉宽大于200ns的负极性脉冲作用下，聚合物膜充电过程为同极性充电，并且电荷积累量与脉冲峰值无关，随着脉宽的增大均趋于同一个稳定值。据此，文中提出了基于强场注入和反向注入两种充电过程并存的新理论模型，强调了针-板空气间隙固有放电特性对聚合物膜充电过程的影响。     

Self-controlled pre-breakdown discharges in planar symmetry

In measurements on Teflon FEP films charged in ⩽50 μm air gaps by microsecond impulse voltages, a uniform charge deposition on the films was observed. A regular increase of the film surface potential from a threshold value of the peak impulse voltage was found. However, for 300 μm air gap it was observed that abrupt charging occurs at a lower threshold voltage, indicating breakdown, and the charge deposition on the film becomes nonuniform. The behavior in air gaps <50 μm is explained here using Townsend's theory of pre-discharges. It is shown how and why the interposed insulating film acts to make the system self-controlled, thus avoiding breakdown in the air gap, despite the large values of the applied peak impulse voltage     

Dynamic observation of needle-plane surface-discharge using theelectro-optical Pockels effect

Dynamic observation of surface charge distribution is the main advantage of the electro-optical Pockels effect technique over the dust figure technique, the photographic Lichtenberg figure technique, and the static potential probe scanning method. This technique is demonstrated here to observe the surface charge distribution deposited by partial discharge during application of one period of an 8 kV sinusoidal voltage to a needle-dielectric plane electrode system with zero gap spacing. Polarity effect and backdischarge are prominent in ac surface discharges. The observed polarity effect in the charge pattern shows that if the dielectric surface is initially free of surface charge, positive `streamer' channels burst out intermittently and radially from the needle tip resulting in a spoke-like surface charge distribution, while negative streamers expand almost uniformly in all radial directions resulting in a nearly circular surface charge distribution. This behavior results in quasi-permanent positive surface charges. Residual negative surface charge from prior discharges has a considerable influence on the trajectory of subsequent positive streamer discharges, i.e. causing deviation of positive streamer channels from the radial direction; whereas residual positive surface charge has little influence on the radial development of surface charge from subsequent negative discharges. This measurement technique has a potential for widespread application in investigating the dynamics of surface charging phenomena     

真空中高压电极结构的单次脉冲沿面闪络耐压研究

电极作为高压绝缘子的加载对象,在电真空器件中有着至关重要的作用,合理的电极结构设计可以有效地提高高压器件的沿面耐压。笔者从实际的应用出发,针对几种新型电极结构进行了电场仿真和实验耐压实验,给出了不同电极情况下,氧化铝陶瓷的耐压结果。结果表明,新型电极结构能有效减弱氧化铝陶瓷三结合处的电场强度,并在一定程度上提高绝缘子耐压能力,相对于平板电极,其平均最高耐压提高了55%。     

Influence of charged droplet cloud on flashover of air gaps for lightning impulse voltage

Transmission lines passing through a mountainous region often are struck by winter lightning. As a result, numerous double-circuit faults occur. Space charge might be responsible for this phenomena. Several investigations on flashover characteristics have been performed focusing on reduction of flashover voltage due to ionic space charge formed by corona discharge. In this paper, flashover characteristics of an air gap within a charged droplet cloud ejected from an airless nozzle using an induction charging method are discussed. The droplets are charged in the range -200 to 200 μC/kg, forming the space-charge density of approximately 13 μC/m³. The flashover voltage and the time lag to flashover were measured when 1.2 × 50 μs lightning impulse voltage applied to a rod-sphere gap is placed within the charged cloud. Flashover voltage for a positive rod increased markedly within a positive charged cloud by increasing the charge-to-mass ratio. The increase of flashover voltage was up to 80 percent in comparison with uncharged droplets. Flashover voltage for the negative rod decreased about 20 percent in the cloud of either polarity. The results show that the presence of charged droplets in the air gaps affects the discharge process significantly.