Job change rate as a crash predictor for interstate truck drivers

This research analyzed the Motor Carrier Management Information System (MCMIS) database to develop estimates of the increased risk of crash involvement experienced by commercial drivers who change jobs frequently. These analyses quantified the risk of single- and multiple-crash involvement as a function of annual job change rate, and expressed the relative risk for drivers with more versus fewer job changes through calculation of the “odds ratio” statistic. Significant odds ratio values were found, indicating that crash risk begins to rise when a driver has averaged more than two jobs with different employers each year for 2 years or longer, and that the odds of being involved in multiple crashes more than doubles for drivers with three or more jobs per year during this same interval. Opportunities for further research, focusing on variables that could be extracted from existing data sources to further enhance the validity and predictive value of the relationships found in this study, were also identified.     

A prevention programme for drinking driving

A drinking-driving programme introduced in one borough of Toronto, Canada, is evaluated. Based on evidence from previous programmes judged effective, it combined a highly visible “random” spot-check enforcement component with a drinking-driving educational component. A three-wave telephone survey showed significant increases in public knowledge of drinking and driving and of the programme in the experimental area. The subjective perception of arrest risk was increased for the “average driver” but not for “myself”. Unfortunately, only indirect evidence was available on driver behaviour and this tended to indicate fewer impaired drivers on the road. Finally, police reported alcohol-related accidents and injuries indicated an overall downward trend in Toronto, but the urban nature and restricted size of the experiment's geographic unit, as well as similar changes in control areas and contaminations to the data rendered the analysis highly ambiguous. Thus, the programme experienced some positive although by no means conclusive indicators of success.     

A study of driver experience and vehicle familiarity in accidents

A separate study was performed as part of a major accident investigation project to (1) test the hypothesis that drivers of vehicles involved in investigated accidents had less driving experience than the general driving population, and (2) test the hypothesis that accident involved drivers were less familiar with their vehicles than the general driving population. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov one-tail test was employed to evaluate the differences in the distributions of driver experience and vehicle familiarity between the “accident sample” and a “control sample.” Results indicated that drivers involved in the investigated accidents had less driving experience in general and had less driving experience with the accident vehicles than drivers in the general population. These effects are discussed briefly and further studies are suggested.     

A modeling perspective on the culture of driving

Each driver is influenced by the collective behavior of other drivers. At the same time, each driver is also part of this collective, and thus influences others. Underlying many driver control and traffic safety programs are two implicit and related assumptions: that drivers are sensitive to the “culture of driving” around them and emulate it; and, that a small shift in the behavior of few might be amplified or snowball to a much larger effect resulting in a changed traffic environment or a modified culture of driving. The paper discusses possible mechanisms for the interactions between individuals, collectives, and culture, drawing on literature from social psychology, sociology, economics, communication, epidemiology, and other disciplines. Traffic behavior modeling could benefit from considering concepts developed in other social disciplines while providing challenging research issues and data sources for testing and developing those concepts.     

Driver age, car mass and accident exposure— A synthesis of available data

The tendency of younger drivers to be more likely than older drivers to drive smaller cars has been an important consideration in a number of prior investigations of the relation between car size and traffic safety. The purpose of the present study is to quantify this effect on a firmer basis than hitherto by fitting data from seven independent sources to a unified general model. More specifically, when the exposure measures “per unit distance of travel” or “per registered car” are used in studies of car mass effects on traffic safety, the exposure information often does not contain the variable driver age. This work develops a general procedure for disaggregating such exposure data into three driver (or owner) age categories; A₁: 16–24; A₂: 25–34; and A₃: 35 years. Data from the seven sources are fined to the equation

f(i,m) = H_i[1 + G _i(m/900 − 1)]

where m is the ear mass in kg, and f(i,m) is the fraction of cars of mass m which are driven (owned) by persons in the A_i, (i = 1, 2, 3) age category. The form of this equation permits easy comparison of 900 and 1800 kg cars. Those particular masses that have been chosen for illustrative comparisons in earlier work. The seven sets of data are used to derive overall average values of the parameters H₁ and G₁. The data from all seven sources show consistent effects which are summarized in one analytical expression which is well suited for use in future studies of car size effects because it reflects a synthesis of much prior data and it permits sensitivity analyses to be performed conveniently.     

Tiredness and visual reaction time among nighttime cab drivers: A roadside survey

The present roadside survey seeks to elucidate the incidence of tiredness among nighttime cab drivers by comparing self-assessed level of tiredness with the results of a simple visual reaction test. Attempts to separate various forms of fatigue from sleepiness are not made, as it appears less important in studies of everyday traffic than in experimental investigations. One-hundred-and-twenty cab drivers of vacant cabs were stopped by the police on a major highway just outside the city of Copenhagen. Eighty drivers declared themselves rested, 38 tired, and 2 very tired. The reaction test showed considerable individual variation, but subdivision of the drivers according to level of tiredness demonstrated a statistically significant and uniform difference throughout the night (p < 0.0001). One self-assessed tired driver was reclassified to the group of very tired based on the questionnaire and reaction test. The investigation indicates that accidents due to “driver asleep” would be expected among the three (2.5%) very tired cab drivers. The questionnaire and visual reaction test turned out to be complementary in the present study and are both useful implements for future roadside surveys of tiredness in nighttime traffic.     

Looked-but-failed-to-see-errors in traffic

Danish studies of traffic accidents at priority intersections have shown a particular type of accidents. In these accidents a car driver supposed to give way has collided with a bicycle rider on the priority road. Often the involved car drivers have maintained that they did not see the bicycle until immediately before the collision even though the bicycle must have been clearly visible.

Similar types of accidents have been the subject of studies elsewhere. In literature they are labelled “looked-but-failed-to-see”, because it seems clear that in many cases the car drivers have actually been looking in the direction where the other parties were but have not seen (i.e. perceived the presence of) the other road user. This paper describes two studies approaching this problem.

One study is based on 10 self-reported near accidents. It does show that “looked-but-failed-to-see” events do occur, especially for well experienced drivers. The other study based on Gap Acceptance shows that the car driver acceptance of gaps towards cyclists depends on whether or not another car is present. Hypotheses for driver perception and for accident countermeasures are discussed.     

Using traffic conviction correlates to identify high accident-risk drivers

One of the primary missions of the California Department of Motor Vehicles is to protect the public from drivers who represent unacceptably high accident risks. Optimum fulfillment of this objective requires the development and implementation of strategies for identifying high-risk drivers. One such system in California is the department’s negligent operator point system. This system assigns points to moving violations and accidents and authorizes the department to take driver control actions against drivers who meet the prima facie definition of a negligent operator. The present study explored the viability of predicting accidents from equations constructed to predict convictions for the general driving population. Equations or models that better identify drivers at increased risk of future accident involvement would increase the number of accidents prevented through post license control actions. Although the results did not support prior findings that equations keyed to citations do as well as or better than equations keyed to accidents in predicting subsequent accident involvement, a canonical correlation approach considering subsequent accident and citation rates simultaneously produced a 14.9% improvement in the classification accuracy or “hit rate” for identifying accident-involved drivers.     

Are aggressive people aggressive drivers? A study of the relationship between self-reported general aggressiveness, driver anger and aggressive driving

In this study the relationships among self-reported general aggressiveness, impulsiveness, driver anger, and aggressive responses to anger-provoking situations on the road were studied. The British version of a driver anger scale (UK DAS), aggression questionnaire (AQ), and an impulsiveness questionnaire (I7) together with background questions (gender, age, annual mileage) were administered to a sample of 270 British drivers. Variation in strength of correlations between anger and aggressive reactions in the 21 UK DAS items showed that the relationship between driver anger and aggression depends in part on the characteristics of the situation. In addition, three path models for describing the relationships among the measures were constructed separately for women and men. The models suggested that the effects of verbal aggressiveness on self-reported driver aggression were mediated by driver anger whereas physical aggressiveness was directly related to aggressive behaviour. Age was negatively related to both driver anger and aggression among men whereas annual mileage was negatively related to aggression among women. The models constructed indicate that aggressive driver behaviour is a complex phenomenon with a range of psychological causes.     

Attitudes of commercial motor vehicle drivers towards safety belts

Despite the fact that Hawaii has one of the highest seat belt use rates for passenger vehicles in the United States, and has had a mandatory seat belt use law since the 1980s, studies have shown that commercial motor vehicles (CMV) seat belt use rates are low. To better understand this phenomenon, a comprehensive survey of commercial vehicle drivers was conducted in Hawaii to ascertain attitudes and self-reported behaviors regarding seat belt use. A total of 791 drivers responded to a written questionnaire implemented at weigh stations and distributed to various trucking firms and transport centers. Approximately 67% reported that they use seat belts “always” when driving a CMV (commercial motor vehicle), yet when asked how often do other CMV drivers use seat belts, only 31% responded “always.” Interestingly, 86% of these same drivers reported that they use seat belts “always” when driving a personal vehicle. The major reason cited for non-use of belts was “frequent stops/inconvenience” (29%), and “not safety conscious” (23%). Notably, the self-reported use of safety belts is highest among operators of vans (88% said “always”), followed by buses (87% said “always”) and lowest among truck drivers (only 60% said “always”). In this paper, some of the differences between self-reported users and non-users are explored and a multivariate logit model was developed to predict the odds of belt use as a function of various factors.     

Limits of the quasi-induced exposure method when compared with the standard case-control design. Application to the estimation of risks associated with driving under the influence of cannabis or alcohol

The disparities between the quasi-induced exposure (QIE) method and a standard case–control approach with crash responsibility as disease of interest are studied. The 10,748 drivers who had been given compulsory cannabis and alcohol tests subsequent to involvement in a fatal crash in France between 2001 and 2003 were used to compare the two approaches. Odds ratios were assessed using conditional and unconditional logistic regressions. While both approaches found that drivers under the influence of alcohol or cannabis increased the risk of causing a fatal crash, the two approaches are not equivalent. They differ mainly with regards to the driver sample selected. The QIE method results in splitting the overall road safety issue into two sub-studies: a matched case–control study dealing with two-vehicle crashes and a case–control study dealing with single-vehicle crashes but with a specific control group. Using a specific generic term such as “QIE method” should not hide the real underlying epidemiological design. On the contrary, the standard case–control approach studies drivers involved in all type of crashes whatever the distribution of the responsibility in each crash. This method also known as “responsibility analysis” is the most relevant for assessing the overall road safety implications of a driver characteristic.     

"Teaching them a lesson?" A qualitative exploration of underlying motivations for driver aggression

Aggressive driving is increasingly a concern for drivers in highly motorised countries. However, the role of driver intent in this behaviour is problematic and there is little research on driver cognitions in relation to aggressive driving incidents. In addition, while drivers who admit to behaving aggressively on the road also frequently report being recipients of similar behaviours, little is known about the relationship between perpetration and victimisation or about how road incidents escalate into the more serious events that feature in capture media attention. The current study used qualitative interviews to explore driver cognitions and underlying motivations for aggressive behaviours on the road. A total of 30 drivers aged 18–49 years were interviewed about their experiences with aggressive driving. A key theme identified in responses was driver aggression as an attempt to manage or modify the behaviour of other road users. Two subthemes were identified and appeared related to separate motivations for aggressive responses: ‘teaching them a lesson’ referred to situations where respondents intended to convey criticism or disapproval, usually of unintended behaviours by the other driver, and thus encourage self-correction; and ‘justified retaliation’ which referred to situations where respondents perceived deliberate intent on the part of the other driver and responded aggressively in return. Mildly aggressive driver behaviour appears to be common. Moreover such behaviour has a sufficiently negative impact on other drivers that it may be worth addressing because of its potential for triggering retaliation in kind or escalation of aggression, thus compromising safety.     

“Teaching them a lesson?” A qualitative exploration of underlying motivations for driver aggression

Aggressive driving is increasingly a concern for drivers in highly motorised countries. However, the role of driver intent in this behaviour is problematic and there is little research on driver cognitions in relation to aggressive driving incidents. In addition, while drivers who admit to behaving aggressively on the road also frequently report being recipients of similar behaviours, little is known about the relationship between perpetration and victimisation or about how road incidents escalate into the more serious events that feature in capture media attention. The current study used qualitative interviews to explore driver cognitions and underlying motivations for aggressive behaviours on the road. A total of 30 drivers aged 18–49 years were interviewed about their experiences with aggressive driving. A key theme identified in responses was driver aggression as an attempt to manage or modify the behaviour of other road users. Two subthemes were identified and appeared related to separate motivations for aggressive responses: ‘teaching them a lesson’ referred to situations where respondents intended to convey criticism or disapproval, usually of unintended behaviours by the other driver, and thus encourage self-correction; and ‘justified retaliation’ which referred to situations where respondents perceived deliberate intent on the part of the other driver and responded aggressively in return. Mildly aggressive driver behaviour appears to be common. Moreover such behaviour has a sufficiently negative impact on other drivers that it may be worth addressing because of its potential for triggering retaliation in kind or escalation of aggression, thus compromising safety.     

'Road rage' in Arizona: armed and dangerous

Little is known about the relationship between firearm carrying and hostile behavior on the roadway. To explore a possible association between firearm carrying by drivers and hostile driving behavior we conducted a random-digit-dial survey of 790 licensed drivers in Arizona. In addition to demographic questions, we asked whether respondents had carried a gun while driving in the 12 months prior to the survey. Respondents were also asked if they, in anger, had personally made obscene gestures, cursed or shouted at other drivers, impeded another drivers progress with their vehicle, aggressively ‘followed another driver too closely’, or brandished a gun at another driver. We used multivariable logistic regression to explore correlates of hostile driving behavior while taking into account several demographic and behavioral characteristics. Overall 11% of drivers always (4%) or sometimes (7%) carried a gun with them in their vehicle; 34% report having made obscene gestures/cursed/shouted angrily; 28% report aggressively following or blocking other drivers with their vehicle. In both crude and multivariate adjusted analyses, self-report of engaging in hostile behavior while driving was significantly more common among men, young adults, and individuals who carried a firearm in their car. Our findings suggest that, at least among Arizona motorists, having a gun in the car is a strong marker for aggressive and illegal behavior behind the wheel.     

Taking a look behind the wheel: An investigation into the personality predictors of aggressive driving

The present study evaluated a theoretical model of the relationships among six aspects of driver personality (i.e., driving anger and the Big Five personality factors), aggressive driving, and two outcomes of aggressive driving: motor vehicle crashes and moving violations. Data from 308 drivers recruited from two vehicle licensing offices were analyzed using structural equation modeling. As expected, aggressive driving predicted crashes and moving violations. Based on the zero-order correlations, emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were related to aggressive driving in the expected directions; however, the picture changed when the joint effects of all variables were examined via structural equation modeling. A model in which driver personality predicted aggressive driving, which in turn predicted crashes and moving violations was supported. Drivers who were high on driving anger and low on agreeableness reported driving more aggressively. Implications for traffic safety professionals and researchers are discussed.     

Reductions in driver speed using posted feedback of speeding information: social comparison or implied surveillance?

Reducing driver speed has an essential role to play in traffic safety. This study measured the effect of a roadside sign, in a 50 km/h zone, that consecutively displayed one of three messages:

1. The average speed at the site: this message was designed to induce “social comparison” whereby drivers may reduce their speed in order to comply with the behaviour of the majority.

2. A warning that drivers’ speeds were being measured: this was intended to imply surveillance whereby drivers may reduce speed in order to avoid possible enforcement action.

3. A combination of both messages, to see if both together would have a greater effect than either alone.

The speed of drivers travelling along a busy urban road (11,500 cars daily in each direction) was measured using inductive loop detectors. The proportion of drivers travelling 60 km/h or less increased with all three messages, suggesting that both social comparison and implied surveillance are mechanisms by which driver speed may be reduced. However, the speed reductions were not as great as in previous studies of feedback signs. This may be due to differences in the existing safety culture.     

Aggressive driving: an observational study of driver, vehicle, and situational variables

Over 2000 aggressive driving behaviors were observed over a total of 72 h at six different sites. The behaviors selected for observation were those that are commonly included in "aggressive driving" lists, and they consisted of honking, cutting across one or more lanes in front of other vehicles, and passing on the shoulders. In addition, an exposure sample of 7200 drivers were also observed at the same times and places. Relative risks (RRs) and odds ratios (ODs) were calculated to show the relative likelihood that different drivers under different conditions will commit aggressive behaviors. The rate of aggressive actions observed in this study decreased from the most frequent behavior of cutting across a single lane, through honking, and to the least frequent behaviors of cutting across multiple lanes and passing on the shoulders. Relative to their proportion in the driving population, men were more likely than women to commit aggressive actions, and the differences increased as the severity of the action increased. Drivers who were 45 years old or older were less likely to drive aggressively than younger ones. The presence of passengers was associated with a slight but consistent reduction in aggressive driving of all types; especially honking at other drivers. There was a strong linear association between congestion and the frequency of aggressive behaviors, but it was due to the number of drivers on the road. However, when the value of time was high (as in rush hours), the likelihood of aggressive driving--after adjusting for the number of drivers on the road--was higher than when the value of time was low (during the non-rush weekday or weekend hours). The results have implications for driver behavior modifications and for environmental design.     

Developing Biotechnology Clusters in Non-high Technology Regions—The Case of Austria

This paper explores the role of distant knowledge links and policy actions for the development of biotechnology clusters. It seeks to challenge the prevailing view that the birth and early development of high technology industries are always spontaneous phenomena which are mainly based on local knowledge. Departing from the theoretical concept of regional innovation systems (RIS), a distinction between “RIS with strong potentials for high technology industries” and “RIS with weak potentials for high technology industries” will be drawn. It will be argued that in the latter case the development of biotechnology clusters is more dependent on distant knowledge sources and proactive policy efforts to create a favourable environment for high technology activities. Furthermore, it will be shown that a far-reaching transformation of the regional innovation system is crucial for catching-up processes of regions which are latecomers in high technology sectors such as biotechnology.     

Anger and aggression among drivers in three European countries

Recent reports of 'road rage' in the British media give the impression that driver aggression is escalating. In order to understand this phenomenon we need to know what it is about driving that provokes motorists to feel anger and then to go on to express that anger in the form of aggression. A postal questionnaire survey of more than 2500 drivers was carried out in three European countries: Britain, Finland and the Netherlands. The study had three main aims: (a) to discover how angry, if at all, a range of situations on the road make drivers, (b) to find out how many drivers are likely to react aggressively to those situations, and (c) to investigate individual and/or cultural differences in terms of anger and/or aggressive responses among motorists. Results indicate that the same types of behaviour provoke anger and aggression in all three countries, and that traffic density may play a role.     

Obliging Institutions and Industry Evolution: A Comparative Study of the German and UK Wind Energy Industries

This paper firstly examines the relationship between state coordination and wind energy growth by comparing the differences between UK and German institutional configurations and state involvements in the 1990s. While the EU was calling for a unified regulatory framework for its member states, the UK and Germany adopted very different renewable energy policies. The evidence of the early 1990s shows that the British government employed “deregulation” with so limited state involvement that wind energy project developers faced thorny development problems, while the German government tried to require the electricity supply industry to purchase expensive wind power by “regulation” but encountered formidable resistance. Nevertheless, both the British and German administrations later could resolve these problems through new forms of state power. This suggests that, firstly, neither “deregulation” nor “regulation” is an effective means to develop wind power with increasing electricity liberalization and regionalization. Secondly, “obliging” regulations and state powers are vital to the policy outcome by harnessing the state's institutional capacity to smooth out technology innovation and diffusion.