不同基质深度下绿色屋顶产流分析

为了优化绿色屋顶基质结构,结合长江中下游地区的水文、气象等条件,在芝加哥设计雨型下,通过人工模拟降雨的方式研究了重现期1~5年,降雨历时30~120 min的条件下不同基质深度对绿色屋顶滞蓄能力的影响,并从产流过程、径流峰值削减率、径流总量削减率方面进行了分析。研究结果表明:在不同设计降雨强度下,随着基质深度的增加,产流时间、延峰时间和径流削减能力呈增加趋势,同时随着降雨重现期的增大,绿色屋顶各项指标呈减小趋势。综合来看,基质深度为25 cm的绿色屋顶性价比较高。     

Assessing methods for predicting green roof rainfall capture: A comparison between full-scale observations and four hydrologic models

To optimize the application of green roof technology, there is a need to quantify stormwater mitigation in advance of green roof construction. This study contributes toward meeting this need by assessing the utility of four hydrologic models for predicting green roof rainfall capture, including the: (1) curve number method, (2) characteristic runoff equation, (3) Hydrological Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP V3.9D) model, and (4) Storm Water Management Model (SWMM V5.1). Modeling results were compared to over twenty-four months of observed runoff data, collected between June 2011 and December 2013, from two full-scale green roofs in New York City (NYC). Both the curve number method and characteristic runoff equation had the highest Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency index (NSEI) between modeled and observed cumulative runoff depth per event (NSEI = 0.97) due to parameter calibration requirements, where error was mainly due to variations in green roof antecedent moisture conditions. The HELP model was originally intended for evaluation of a continuous landfill cover. As a result, HELP's inability to account for the non-vegetated areas on green roofs caused underestimation of runoff depth for most events (NSEI = 0.84). Alternatively, the SWMM model tended to overestimate event runoff depth (NSEI = 0.94), thought to be the result of its storage term parameterization. Model assessments point to the need for more robust parameter estimation methods, particularly for inputs that are statistical or difficult to measure directly, to improve pre-development accuracy of green roof performance models.     

Experimental study on the effects of LID measures on the control of rainfall runoff

ABSTRACT

Low impact development (LID) measures are important for controlling pollution and reducing the rainfall runoff volume, but they need lots of experiments to determine optimal characteristics. This study established low-elevation greenbelts, permeable pavements, and green roofs to determine the effect of LID measures on the control of rainfall runoff in a lateritic red soils region by simulating rainfall or runoff, and the variables were mainly of grass type, pavement type, substrate thicknesses, and rainfall intensity. The results (43.54–94.00% volume reduction and 40.59–97.48% pollutant removal effectiveness of low-elevation greenbelt with 10 cm depth and 5 cm height gullies, 13.19–74.20% volume reduction and 64.04–99.90% pollutant removal effectiveness of permeable pavement with 36.4 cm thick graded gravel layer, and 8.63–24.40%, 19.22–37.26%, and 30.14–48.44% volume reduction respectively of green roofs with 30, 50, and 70 mm substrate thicknesses) implied that LID measures can effectively reduce rainfall runoff volume and pollutants in lateritic red soils regions.     

蓄水绿化屋面对雨水径流中污染物的去除效果

屋面作为城区不透水区域的主要组成部分,是造成城市面源污染的重要因素之一。为此,根据屋面雨水径流的特点设计了蓄水绿化屋面系统,并通过比较屋面雨水和城市蓄水绿化屋面处理后出水的水质情况,分析了其对污染物的去除效果。结果显示,城市蓄水绿化屋面对屋面雨水径流中的SS、COD、TN、TP有明显的去除效果,去除率分别可达(80%~90%)、(50%~70%)、(50%~70%)、(40%~70%)。雨水径流经过城市蓄水绿化屋面处理后,其水质可达到《城市污水再生利用城市杂用水水质》(GB/T 18920—2002)的要求。该研究为城市屋面雨水资源化利用工程的实施提供了一定的理论依据。     

Increasing green roof plant drought tolerance through substrate modification and the use of water retention gels

The optimal provision of green roof services is largely dependent on the health of the vegetation on the green roof, which is often affected by water availability.We assessed the impact of two substrate components, brick particle size and a polyacrylamide gel additive, and a living mulch (companion planting of Sedum spp.) on the growth, physiological and visual health of newly established plugs of Festuca ovina and Linaria vulgaris during an extreme drought (25 days) in a controlled environment greenhouse. Polyacrylamide gel and large brick substrates increased both plant species' drought tolerance whilst a Sedum living mulch had no effect. Polyacrylamide gel increased the reservoir of water that plants could access during the drought, whilst large brick promoted slower and therefore more drought resistant plant growth. Overall this study shows that polyacrylamide gel and coarser particle size substrates can significantly improve the drought tolerance of green roof plants.     

Selection of a support matrix for the removal of some phenoxyacetic compounds in constructed wetlands systems

The efficiency of constructed wetlands systems in the removal of pollutants can be significantly enhanced by using a support matrix with a greater capacity to retain contaminants by sorption phenomena, ionic exchange or other physico-chemical processes. The aim of this work was to evaluate the efficiencies of 3 different materials, Light Expanded Clay Aggregates [LECA] (in two different particle sizes), Expanded Perlite and Sand, for the removal from water of one pharmaceutical compound (clofibric acid) and one pesticide (MCPA). Both belong to the class of phenoxyacetic compounds. In addition, relationships were established between the compounds' removal efficiencies and the physico-chemical properties of each material. LECA exhibited a high sorption capacity for MCPA, while the capacity for clofibric acid was more modest, but still significant. In contrast, perlite had a very limited sorption capacity while sand did not exhibit any sorption capacity for any of the compounds. LECA with smaller particle sizes showed higher efficiencies than larger grade LECA and can achieve efficiencies near 100% for the lower concentrations in the order of 1 mg l(-1). However, the use of these smaller particle media at larger scales may present problems with hydraulic conductivities. The results show that expanded clay presents important advantages in laboratory studies and could be used as a filter medium or a support matrix in constructed wetlands systems.     

Macro-meso effects of gradation and particle morphology on the compressibility characteristics of calcareous sand

In order to fully develop the South China Sea, a large number of reclamation projects using calcareous sand have been carried out in this area recently. A deep understanding of the physical and mechanical properties of calcareous sand is of critical importance. Therefore, the calcareous sand near a certain reef of the South China Sea is used in this study to investigate the effect of three-dimensional (3-D) particle morphology and gradation on the compressibility characteristics of calcareous sand. This paper proposes a 3-D mesoscope observation method to obtain the average 3-D angularity parameter S _d and 3-D aspect ratio T _d of calcareous sand with different particle sizes. It is found that the morphology of coarse particles (diameter: 5 ~ 1 mm) is significantly multi-angular, while the morphologies of middle particles (1 ~ 0.25 mm) are mostly dendritic and schistic. Compared to the 3-D S _d of quartz sand, the calcareous sand’s particle morphology is much more irregular and multi-angular, which makes it easy for the calcareous sand to form large pores and, thus, be more compressible. In order to systematically study the effect of gradation on the calcareous sand’s compressibility characteristics, a number of compression tests on calcareous sand with different gradations are taken. The influential mechanism is then discussed by analyzing the test results from a mesoscopic viewpoint. It is found that changing the coarse fraction content is the most efficient way to reduce the compressibility of the calcareous sand. That is because of the coarse fraction’s high angularity, which makes the skeleton-bearing capacity of the calcareous sand sensitive to the change of coarse fraction content. An empirical formula is proposed to evaluate the compressibility of the calcareous sand with different coarse fraction contents.     

Use of green roofs to solve storm water issues at the basin scale – Study in the Hauts-de-Seine County (France)

At the building scale, green roof has demonstrated a positive impact on urban runoff (decrease in the peak discharge and runoff volume). This work aims to study if similar impacts can be observed at a basin scale. It is particularly focused on the possibility to solve some operational issues caused by storm water.

For this purpose, a methodology has been proposed. It combines: a method to estimate the maximum roof area that can be covered by green roof, called green roofing potential, and an urban rainfall-runoff model able to simulate the hydrological behaviour of green roof.

This methodology was applied to two urban catchments, one affected by flooding and the other one by combined sewage overflow. The results show that green roof can reduce the frequency and the magnitude of such problems depending on the covered roof surface. Combined with other infrastructures, they represent an interesting solution for urban water management.     

Modeling the reduction of urban excess heat by green roofs with respect to different irrigation scenarios

Urban heat reduction by evaporative cooling from extensive green roofs is explored by applying irrigation scenarios to green roofs located in different climate zones using a coupled atmosphere-vegetation-substrate green roof model. The model,which is integrated in the building energy simulation software Energy Plus,is validated with eddy covariance surface energy fluxes from a green roof in Berlin,Germany. The original model wasmodified to include interception and an improved runoff calculation. Three irrigation scenarios were defined( no irrigation,sustainable irrigation by harvested runoff water,unrestricted irrigation) to study the heat reduction potential in terms of surface energy partitioning and sensible heat fluxes( QH). The irrigation scenarios are compared to two white roofs( albedo equal to 0. 35 and 0. 65) and a black roof.High correlation of sensible and latent heat( QE) fluxes between measured and modelled data for the original and the modified version of the green roof model were observed( for the original model,R~2= 0. 91 and 0. 81 for QH and QE,respectively,while for the modified version R~2= 0. 91 and 0. 80,respectively). The modified version was applied to study irrigation,due to lower systematic errors for QH,QEand better performance for the substrate moisture content. In comparison to a black roof the green roof reduces urban excess heat by 15%-51%with sustainable irrigation,by 48%-75%with unrestricted irrigation,but drops to 3% for unirrigated roofs in the different cities. Sustainable irrigation can be effective in climates with high annual( or summerly) precipitation.     

Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of green roofs

This paper describes the life cycle environmental cost characteristics of intensive and extensive green roofs versus conventional roofs. A life cycle inventory and environmental impact assessment is used to document and analyze the similarities and differences in the environmental impacts of the fabrication, transportation, installation, operation, maintenance, and disposal of all three roof systems. This is important because there are additional resources committed to green roofs from which environmentally relevant benefits, such as reduced electrical energy use for building cooling, are derived. The extensive green roof design for the case study presented here is from an actual 1115 m² (12,000 ft²) green roof project on a retail store in Pittsburgh, PA, USA. The case study includes a conventional ballasted roof, an extensive, or shallow growing medium green roof, and an intensive, or deep growing medium green roof. For the life cycle inventory and the material use, both the types of material used and the transportation distances to the site are with respect to this project.     

Occurrence and fate of corrosion-induced zinc in runoff water from external structures

This paper comprises data from an extensive cross-disciplinary research project aiming to elucidate the environmental fate of corrosion-induced zinc release from external structures. It includes an exposure assessment that provide long-term runoff rates, concentrations and chemical speciation of zinc, from 14 zinc-based materials exposed during 5 years in Stockholm, Sweden, and an effect assessment including bioavailability and ecotoxicity measurements, both at the immediate release situation and after soil interaction. Runoff rates of total zinc ranged from 0.07 to 2.5 g Znm-2 yr-1 with zinc primarily released as the free ion for all materials investigated. The average effect concentration, causing a 50% growth reduction after 72 h to the green algae Raphidocelis subcapitata, was at the immediate release situation 69 microg ZnL-1. Upon interaction of runoff water with soil, which simulated 18 to 34 years of exposure, the total zinc concentration was significantly reduced, from milligram per litre to microgram per litre levels. Simultaneously, the most bioavailable fraction of zinc in runoff, the hydrated zinc(II)-ion, decreased from more than 95% to about 30%. The major fraction, 98-99%, of the introduced total zinc concentration in the runoff water was retained within the soil. As long as the soil retention capacity was not reached, this resulted in zinc concentrations in the percolate water transported through the soil layer, close to background values and below growth inhibition concentrations for the green algae investigated. Zinc retained in soil was to a large extent (85-99.9%) extractable with EDTA, and available for plant uptake after 5 to 7 months of ageing.     

基于径流污染控制的生物滞留设施填料优化研究

为实现对径流污染的有效控制,对生物滞留设施种植土层之下的人工填料层组成优化进行了系统性研究,在静态条件下考察了9组填料对氮磷营养物的吸附性能。结果显示,蛭石和沸石对氨氮的吸附性能较好,对氨氮的吸附量分别为3.7和3.2 mg/g,并且粒径越小,吸附性能越好;蛭石和麦饭石对磷酸盐的去除效果较好,磷酸盐去除量分别为0.13和0.1 mg/g。由此筛选出对污染物净化效果较好的1~3 mm沸石和蛭石、2~3 mm麦饭石作为去除污染物的功能性填料。动态水力循环试验显示,相同体积的蛭石和沸石对氨氮的吸附效果接近,水力停留时间(HRT)为60 min时,对氨氮的去除率均接近100%,此时麦饭石对氨氮的去除率为93%。对磷酸盐吸附效果的优劣排序为蛭石>麦饭石>沸石,当HRT为60 min时,对磷酸盐的去除率分别为78.8%、53%和19.7%。填料掺混体积比为沸石∶蛭石∶麦饭石∶砂=3∶7∶1∶6的组合系统对氨氮、磷酸盐和COD的去除效果最好,且下覆5 cm砂层有利于降低出水颗粒物导致的浊度。在此填料配比条件下,当填料层厚度在30~50 cm之间时,对氮、磷和COD的综合去除效果最好。     

In-situ measurements of sound propagating over extensive green roofs

In this study, in-situ measurements of sound propagating over flat, extensive green roofs are presented for 5 cases. Measurements were performed just before and just after the placement of the green roof (under dry conditions) with an identical source-receiver configuration in both situations, allowing a direct estimate of the acoustical effect. Situations involving a single and double diffraction over the green roof were considered, for substrate thicknesses ranging from 20–30 mm to 180 mm, and for vegetation cover ranging from absence to 100%. The green roof acoustic effect was analyzed for propagation path lengths interacting with the roofs ranging from 2.5 m to 25 m. Measurements show that green roofs might lead to consistent and significant sound reduction at locations where only diffracted sound waves arrive relative to common, non-vegetated roofs. A single diffraction case with an acoustic green roof improvement exceeding 10 dB was found for sound frequencies between 400 Hz and 1250 Hz, although the green roof interaction path length was only 4.5 m. For less shielded receivers, a change in interference pattern might be observed, leading to positive or negative effects, relative to a non-vegetated roof top. For the double diffraction cases the green roof improvement is less frequency-dependent and a case with positive effects up to 10 dB was found.     

屋面径流污染物的出流类型与水质特性研究

在对上海城区屋面径流进行监测的基础上,分析了屋面径流中污染物的出流过程,并探讨了其水质特性.通过对污染物出流过程的研究,得到了3种屋面径流污染物的出流类型及出流水质的变化特征和发生的环境条件;污染物出流事件平均浓度(EMC)的对数正态概率分布结果表明,不同污染物的EMC均具有较好的正态分布性;对屋面径流污染物的出流EMC进行统计分析,得到上海城区屋面径流的COD、SS、BOD5、NH3-N、TP、TN的EMC分别为42.6、76.9、15.2、1.61、0.14、4.8 mg/L,其中SS、COD为主要污染物.     

Suspended particle characteristics in storm runoff from urban impervious surfaces in Toowoomba,Australia

Total suspended solids as a measure of suspended particles in urban stormwater has limitations and the alternative suspended sediment concentration method was adapted to determine non-coarse particle (NCP) concentration, defined as particles smaller than 500 μm. NCP was partitioned into the following classes: very fine particles (<8 μm, VFP), fine particles (8–63 μm, FP) and medium particles (63–500 μm, MP). A site mean concentration approach was adopted to differentiate the suspended particle characteristics between three impervious surfaces (roof, road and car park) using runoff data collected for 35 storms. Runoff particle size distribution (PSD) of all surfaces was dominated by particles less than 63 μm. A weak trend of relatively constant VFP concentration was present in the road runoff data. Roof runoff PSD became finer as NCP concentration increased and, overall, the PSD of car park runoff was coarser compared to road and roof runoff. These findings have runoff treatment implications as settling processes are influenced by particle size.     

基于 PCSWMM 模型的广州典型社区海绵化改造水文效应研究

随着城市化进程加快和海绵城市建设的不断推进，低影响开发（LID）措施在城市建设中备受重视。为评估LID措施效果，构建研究区域PCSWMM模型，模拟分析重现期分别为0.5、1、2、5、10和20年的设计降雨情形下LID 设施的水文效应，结果表明下凹式绿地、绿色屋顶和透水铺装等LID措施的不同组合方案对径流量和污染物均有不同程度的削减能力，且削减效果随着降雨重现期增大而减少，同时设置下凹式绿地、绿色屋顶和透水铺装的组合能达到最佳削减效果，对径流量、BOD5、CODCr、TSS、NH3-N、TN和TP的最大削减率分别为64.77%、56.93%、57.44%、51.20%、51.91%、55.29%和71.37%。     

Quantitative evaluation of enterococci and Bacteroidales released by adults and toddlers in marine water

Traditionally, the use of enterococci has been recommended as the fecal indicator bacteria of choice for testing marine recreational water quality, and prior studies have shown that bathers shed large numbers of enterococci into the water. The current study expands upon prior research by evaluating shedding from both toddlers and adults, and by the expansion of measurements to include enterococci shedding via three different methods (membrane filter (MF), chromogenic substrate (CS), and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)) and shedding of alternative fecal indicator bacteria (Bacteroidales human markers UCD and HF8 via qPCR). Two sets of experiments were conducted. The first experiment consisted of two groups of 10 adults who bathed together in a large pool. The second study consisted of 14 toddlers who bathed individually in a small pool which allowed for sand recovery. Sand recovery was used to estimate the amount of sand transported on the bodies of toddlers and to estimate the number of fecal indicator bacteria released from this sand. The numbers of estimated enterococci shed per adult ranged from 1.8 × 10⁴ to 2.8 × 10⁶ CFU, from 1.9 × 10³ to 4.5 × 10⁶ MPN, and from 3.8 × 10⁵ to 5.5 × 10⁶ GEU based on the MF, CS, and qPCR methods, respectively. The estimated numbers of Bacteroidales human markers ranged from 1.8 × 10⁴ to 1.3 × 10⁶ for UCD, and ranged from the below detection limit to 1.6 × 10⁵ for HF8. The estimated amount of sand transported per toddler (n = 14) into the water column after sand exposure was 8 ± 6 g on average. When normalizing the numbers of enterococci shed from toddlers via sand by the 3.9 body surface area ratio, the differences between toddlers and adults were insignificant. Contributions of sands to the total enterococci (MF) shed per toddler was 3.7 ± 4.4% on average. Although shedding via beach sand may contribute a small fraction of the microbial load during initial bathing, it may have a significant role if bathers go to water repetitively after sand exposure.     

Effect of green roof on ambient CO2 concentration

Plants can improve air quality by removing pollutants. The air purification capability of plants has been receiving increasing attention because of the rapid deterioration of the environment. However, research on evaluating quantitatively the effect of plants on the environmental pollutant concentrations is still scarce. This paper studies the effect of a green roof on the ambient CO₂ concentration as an example to assess the benefit of urban greening. The study comprises three parts: (1) Field measurement of the difference of CO₂ concentration at a location in the middle of the plants in a small plot of green roof and one in the surrounding area, (2) Experiments to measure the plant’s CO₂ absorption velocity and emission rate using a sealed glass chamber; and (3) Computer simulation of the CO₂ concentration distribution around a green roof using the measured CO₂ absorption velocity and emission rate to quantify the effects of the green roof on the ambient CO₂ concentration.     

LES and RANS comparison of flow and pollutant dispersion in urban environment

This study investigates air pollution dispersion in urban areas by means of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The commercial CFD software FLUENT was used to implement two different turbulence simulation methods (RANS and LES), in domains similar to complex urban environments. Particularly, different combinations of roof shapes were studied and simulation results of pollutant (ethane) concentrations were compared against experimental data. The building height (H) to the neighbour building distance (B) ratio was also taken into consideration. Previous studies showed that both RANS and LES models are accurate enough to predict pollutant concentrations fields in B/H = 1. In the present study the incapability of RANS models to predict accurately pollutant concentration in B/H = 0.5 for all roof shapes configurations is revealed.     

Granulometry,cluster analysis and spatial distribution of manganese contaminated soils,Kgwakgwe, southeastern Botswana

The particle size distribution (PSD) of 400 Mn contaminated soil samples was established, and generated data were statistically analysed and spatially presented. The PSD for the 53 µm – 4 µm size fraction soil samples ranged from 11.05 to 100 wt %, whereas that for < 4 µm was from 0.3 to 30 wt %. Texturally, samples were dominantly silt loam, although silt and sandy loam were also present, as well as loam, loamy sand and clay classes. Six clusters were identified with cluster one being the most dominant occurring in sandy loam, silt loam and loamy sand. The < 53 µm fraction had three dominant areas, and the < 4 µm fraction had several unevenly presented populations as reflected in the maps. Because of its spatial distribution, the < 4 µm fraction may pose hazards to human health. Furthermore, predominance of Mn limits land use to subsistence agriculture with possibly low crop yield.