Understanding empathy: Integrating counseling, developmental, and social psychology perspectives.

Reviews the literature of social and developmental psychology on empathy theory and research. These 2 subdisciplines differ in their definitions and measures from each other, as well as from the counseling/psychotherapy area. At the same time, all 3 disciplines identify 2 major types of empathy: (a) affective empathy, or feeling the same way as another person, and (b) cognitive or role-taking empathy. Four proposals that result from an integration of these 3 literatures are discussed: First, empathy should be viewed as a multistage interpersonal process that can involve emotional contagion, identification, and role taking. Second, empathy in children is probably different from empathy in adolescence and adulthood. Third, empathy can but does not necessarily lead to helping behaviors. Last, empathy in counseling/psychotherapy can be helpful in certain stages, with certain clients, and for certain goals. However, at other times it can interfere with positive outcomes. (79 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult recollections of childhood abuse: Cognitive and developmental perspectives.

This research was conducted, as part of American Psychological Association Working Group on the Investigation of Memories of Childhood Abuse (see record 2000-13581-002), to address concerns about cases in which an individual has no memory for a traumatic experience, enters therapy, and emerges sometime later with an elaborate memory. The article summarizes research on human memory, focusing on the literature in cognitive and developmental psychology. The authors provide a broad overview of memory and its development by making use of a conceptual framework for thinking about the flow of information within the memory system. They then focus on 3 topics: (1) a developmental perspective and its relevance for considering questions of adults attempting to remember things from the distant past; (2) suggestibility, memory distortions, and the extent to which misleading information may degrade memory performance; and (3) distinguishing between reality and fantasy, and monitoring the sources of information. The report concludes with a treatment of the importance of determining boundary conditions for some of the effects that are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pervasive developmental disorders: neurological perspectives]

The pervasive disorders of development (TPD) or disorders within the spectrum of autism (TEA) are two terms which are often used to describe a well-defined group of behaviour disorders characterized by changes in social interaction and language communication together with repetitive behaviour patterns. This group of disorders has multiple etiologies and the clinical manifestations vary in severity. In this study the incidence of a selected group of neurological changes and neurodiagnostic tests in 421 children with TDP is analyzed. 11% of the children had genetic disorders such as chromosomial disorders, genetic syndromes and family incidence. 18% of the children had motor disorders with hypotonicity being the commonest (85%). 71% of the children were stereotyped. 59% of the children had cogniscitive functions which were appropriate, or nearly so, for their chronological age, 28% of the children had language regression. 13% had epileptic crises. The electroencephalogram and cerebral magnetic resonance were abnormal in 29% and 19% respectively of the children on whom these tests were done.     

The developmental relations between conceptual and procedural knowledge: A multimethod approach.

Interactions between conceptual and procedural knowledge influence the development of mathematical competencies. However, after decades of research, these interrelations are still under debate, and empirical results are inconclusive. The authors point out a source of these problems. Different kinds of knowledge and competencies only show up intertwined in behavior, making it hard to measure them validly and independently of each other. A multimethod approach was used to investigate the extent of these problems. A total of 289 fifth and sixth graders’ conceptual and procedural knowledge about decimal fractions was measured by 4 common hypothetical measures of each kind of knowledge. Study 1 tested whether treatments affected the 2 groups of measures in consistent ways. Study 2 assessed, across 3 measurement points, whether conceptual and procedural knowledge could be modeled as latent factors underlying the measures. The results reveal substantial problems with the validities of the measures, which might have been present but gone undetected in previous studies. A solution to these problems is essential for theoretical and practical progress in the field. The potential of the multimethod approach for this enterprise is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding of logical necessity: developmental antecedents and cognitive consequences

Does abstract reasoning develop naturally, and does instruction contribute to its development? In an attempt to answer these questions, this article specifically focuses on effects of prolonged instruction on the development of abstract deductive reasoning and, more specifically, on the development of understanding of logical necessity. It was hypothesized that instructional emphasis on the metalevel of deduction within a knowledge domain can amplify the development of deductive reasoning both within and across this domain. The article presents 2 studies that examine the development of understanding of logical necessity in algebraic and verbal deductive reasoning. In the first study, algebraic and verbal reasoning tasks were administered to 450 younger and older adolescents selected across different instructional settings in England and in Russia. In the second study, algebraic and verbal reasoning tasks were administered to 287 Russian younger and older adolescents selected across different instructional settings. The results support the hypothesis, indicating that prolonged instruction with an emphasis on the metalevel of algebraic deduction contributes to the development of understanding of logical necessity in both algebraic and verbal deductive reasoning. Findings also suggest that many adolescents do not develop an understanding of logical necessity naturally.     

Understanding chinese developmental dyslexia: Morphological awareness as a core cognitive construct.

Tasks representing 9 cognitive constructs of potential importance to understanding Chinese reading development and impairment were administered to 75 children with dyslexia and 77 age-matched children without reading difficulties in 5th and 6th grade. Logistic regression analyses revealed that dyslexic readers were best distinguished from age-matched controls with tasks of morphological awareness, speeded number naming, and vocabulary skill; performance on tasks of visual skills or phonological awareness failed to distinguish the groups. Path analyses further revealed that a construct of morphological awareness was the strongest consistent predictor of a variety of literacy-related skills across both groups. Findings suggest that morphological awareness may be a core theoretical construct necessary for explaining variability in reading Chinese. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A framework for understanding child maltreatment: An integration of cognitive behavioural and developmental perspectives.

Suggests that emphasis be placed on basic assessment research utilizing a cognitive behavioral developmental framework in the treatment of child-abusive families. A framework involving 3 core deficit areas is described: (1) parent–child interaction disturbances, (2) parental disturbances in impulse control, and (3) parental cognitive dysfunctions. These areas could potentially explain both the occurrence of parental aggression and the negative sequelae observed among maltreated children. Using such a framework to guide research would foster the development of a more comprehensive theory of child maltreatment and improved treatment and prevention. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fundamental dimensions of social judgment: Understanding the relations between judgments of competence and warmth.

In seems there are two dimensions that underlie most judgments of traits, people, groups, and cultures. Although the definitions vary, the first makes reference to attributes such as competence, agency, and individualism, and the second to warmth, communality, and collectivism. But the relationship between the two dimensions seems unclear. In trait and person judgment, they are often positively related; in group and cultural stereotypes, they are often negatively related. The authors report 4 studies that examine the dynamic relationship between these two dimensions, experimentally manipulating the location of a target of judgment on one and examining the consequences for the other. In general, the authors' data suggest a negative dynamic relationship between the two, moderated by factors the impact of which they explore. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Psychoanalytic Rorschach Profile: An integration of drive, ego, and object relations perspectives.

Over the last 20 years a growing number of psychoanalytic researchers have explored theoretical constructs and psychopathology through empirical investigation of object representations elicited in projective tests, particularly the Rorschach. A newly designed scoring system, the Psychoanalytic Rorschach Profile (PRP), was created to overcome the limitations of previously published scoring systems. The PRP consists of 10 scales that assess the areas of impulse, ego structure, and object relations. A pilot study to determine reliability and validity of the new scoring system was undertaken by comparing the Rorschach protocols of five borderline and five schizophrenic subjects. Analysis of data results revealed high interrater reliability and significant discrimination of the clinical groups. The potential power of an integrated profile analysis of Rorschach imagery by the PRP is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding developmental psychopathology: how useful are evolutionary accounts?

OBJECTIVE: To consider the power of principles derived from evolutionary biology to explain the causes and determinants of some forms of child and adolescent mental disorders. METHOD: The authors reviewed the scientific literature for evolutionary mechanisms proposed to contribute to the pathogenesis of early-onset disorders. RESULTS: A diverse set of evolutionary mechanisms has been proposed. With the exception of certain genetically determined conditions, many of the proposed mechanisms have little empirical data to support them. One mechanism focuses on the vulnerabilities associated with conserved behavior patterns, such as separation anxiety and other alarm responses. These behavioral patterns are adaptive if they appear in some situations, but not in others. Other attractive theories include a co-optation of underlying neurobiology systems (substance abuse), environmental shifts (transformation of present day environments away from primeval environments), and evolutionary arms races as may occur in putative autoimmune disorders with neuropsychiatric sequelae. CONCLUSIONS: Evolutionary biology provides a potentially powerful framework for understanding disease pathogenesis in child psychiatry and should permit the integration of new knowledge from a broad range of scientific disciplines. Evolutionary explanations are typically population-based and fail to account for why a particular individual is disciplines. Evolutionary explanations are typically population-based and fail to account for why a particular individual is affected. Consequently, any adequate account of disease pathogenesis requires that environmental events that impinge on CNS development be considered. Finally, the empirical testing of specific theories may prove to be difficult if not impossible.     

Psychobiography and the psychology of science: Understanding relations between the life and work of individual psychologists.

This paper presents initial interpretive hypotheses about connections between the life and work of a number of eminent psychologists: Sigmund Freud, Karen Horney, Henry Murray, B. F. Skinner, and Paul Meehl. Each of these interpretations can be critically evaluated, revised and improved, leading to incrementally more adequate understanding of individual lives, interacting with advances in psychological theory and research. Psychobiographical studies of individual scientists are a valuable complement to experimental and correlational lines of research in the psychology of science. In the "Science Wars" of the 1990s, there was an apparent conflict between scientists and those in social studies of science. The psychology of science can contribute to this debate, exploring the ways in which scientific inquiry, social-political worlds, and personal-experiential processes construct each other over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two perspectives on the validation of developmental constructs: Psychometric and theoretical limitations in research on egocentrism.

Extends the present author's (see record 1980-05161-001) earlier analysis of the egocentrism construct and the psychometrically oriented reanalysis of H. S. Waters and V. S. Tinsley (see record 1985-22354-001) by offering a theoretically focused perspective on the validation of developmental constructs. It suggests that chronic psychometric problems in construct validation research can usually be attributed to underlying theoretical problems. Concrete examples of the limitations of cognitive-developmental theory in guiding research on egocentrism are provided and new theoretical directions are outlined. These alternative explanatory frameworks include, contextual theory developed by D. H. Feldman (1980), the cognitive-processing theory of M. Chapman (1981), and the living-systems theory of D. H. Ford (in press) and the present author (1984). (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Shorter term treatment of borderline personality disorder: A developmental, self-, and object relations approach.

After a brief summary of J. F Masterson's developmental, self-, and object relations approach to long-term, intensive psychotherapy of the borderline personality disorder, an adaptation of this approach to shorter term treatment is proposed. The time constraints of abbreviated treatment require the following limited goals for the patient: (a) increased control of maladaptive defenses, (b) learning about the fundamental dynamics related to the focal symptom or problematic behavior, and (c) improved adaptation. Requisite modifications of technique include (a) limited frequency of sessions, (b) focalized treatment, (c) an emphasis on adaptation, and (d) a reliance on confrontation as the primary therapeutic intervention. A brief case study is presented for illustrative purposes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Plasticity, person-context relations, and cognitive training in the aged years: A developmental contextual perspective.

Developmental contextualism focuses on changes in fused relations between developing people and their changing contexts. The presence of these relations means that human development is characterized by the potential for systematic change—for plasticity—across life. Research on training cognitive functioning in the aged years provides evidence about plasticity because such investigations attempt to alter developmental trajectories by introducing a revised regimen of person–context relations into people's lives. Moreover, when research is conducted with people in their advanced adult years, it is often interpreted as constituting a conservative test of plasticity. J. I. Campbell and N. Charness (see record 1991-06940-001), P. Gratzinger et al (see record 1991-07064-001), R. Kliegl et al (see record 1991-06962-001), and S. L. Willis and C. S. Nesselroade (see record 1991-07074-001), in the 4 studies reported in this special section, provide evidence that supports developmental contextual ideas about plasticity and about procedures and policies that might create conditions promoting enhancement of cognitive functioning among the aged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding the relations among gender, disinhibition, and disruptive behavior in adolescents.

This study examined whether disinhibition shows similar relations with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD) symptomatology among male and female adolescents. The mixed-incentive or punishment condition of Newman's go/no-go task was administered to 172 adolescents. As expected, ADHD symptoms in boys and girls were predictive of disinhibition (i.e., commission errors) in the mixed-incentive but not punishment condition. Also consistent with expectations, CD symptoms in boys were predictive of disinhibition in the mixed-incentive but not punishment condition. In contrast, CD symptoms in girls were not predictive of disinhibition in either condition. These findings are discussed in terms of implications for understanding sex differences in the etiology of ADHD and CD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent-child relations: A meta-analytic review.

It is widely assumed that a linkage, crucial to the understanding of child behavior, exists between marital and parent–child relationship quality. A meta-analysis of 68 studies was conducted to determine whether this linkage exists and, if so, whether the linkage is positive (as suggested by the spillover hypothesis) or negative (as suggested by the compensatory hypothesis). Results supported the spillover hypothesis; a positive and nonhomogeneous effect size of moderate magnitude was found (d?=?0.46). This suggests that research in this area can move beyond the question of whether a positive or negative association exists to identifying moderators of the association. Examination of the impact of 13 potential moderators did not support the existence of any of these variables that could be adequately examined. This suggests that the link between marital and parent–child relations functions as a more stable force than previously thought. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and psychopathology: Genetic perspectives.

Genetic factors exert an important influence on adult personality traits, accounting for anywhere between 30–60% of the variance. Heredity is also important for most forms of psychopathology and plays a major role in several theories that relate personality to psychopathology. Despite this, there has been surprisingly little multivariate genetic research reported on joint analyses of personality and psychopathology. The small amount of available data suggests that genes may account for over 50% of the observed correlation between neuroticism and state symptoms of anxiety and depression. The mechanisms behind such strong genetic correlations are crucial for understanding the causal relationship between a personality trait and a disorder because genetically influenced biological systems may operate as exogenous "3rd-party" factors that are responsible for what appear to be phenotypic cause–effect relationships. How recent analytical advances in behavior genetics can use multivariate family data to address questions about the causal role of personality in psychopathology is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding developmental changes in the stability and flexibility of spatial categories based on object relatedness.

Two experiments examined the flexibility and stability with which children and adults organize locations into categories on the basis of object relatedness. Seven-, 9-, and 11-year-olds and adults learned the locations of 20 objects belonging to 4 categories. Displacement patterns revealed that children and adults used object cues to organize the locations into groups. The organization remained the same following a 7-day delay for all 4 ages, demonstrating stability. Moreover, for 11-year-olds and adults, this organization shifted after a new pattern of object-location pairings was introduced. The pattern was less clear for the younger children, suggesting that flexibility increases across childhood. Discussion focuses on the dynamics of organization processes, particularly stability and flexibility, and the integration of objects and locations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding the potential of occupation: a qualitative exploration of seniors' perspectives on activity

This article presents the results of a qualitative study that explored the characteristics and potential of occupation. Semistructured interviews with 12 seniors who live in the community followed by member-checking groups were used to explore informants' perspectives on the importance and role of occupation in their lives by asking them about their activities. Themes pertinent to the characterization of activity, the contributions of activity, and a condition allowing for the potential of activity emerged from the inductive analysis. These themes provide information about how occupation naturally functions in the lives of seniors and suggest a tentative conceptualization of the characteristics and potential of occupation. The findings have implications for research regarding occupation and for clinical practice aimed at enabling occupation.     

Aggression: Integrating interpersonal and cognitive perspectives.

Discusses the treatment of a 4-yr-old boy for extreme aggression. Treatment was influenced by 2 concepts: preemptive processing and the malevolent attitude. Two incidents in the S's treatment highlight the malevolent attitude and behavior suggestive of preemptive processing. In both situations, anxiety arose and was warded off in a malevolent fashion. The onset of malevolent behavior marked the beginning of an interruption in communication. Interpreting the S's behavior within an interpersonal framework led to the identification of a deviant schema, the malevolent attitude, and its experiential source. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)