Convoys of social support: An intergenerational analysis.

Within the Convoy Model, social networks are viewed as dynamic hierarchic structures surrounding the individual throughout life. As a step toward empirical definition of convoy structure and function across the life span, a bicultural sample (N?=?159) of young adult women, their mothers, and their grandmothers were queried. Comparable results were obtained across generations and cultures with regard to network size, the amount of support provided by the network, and the nomination of close family members as primary sources of support. However, there was a marked shift across generations in the balance of familial vs friendship relations. Younger persons included fewer family members and more friends in their networks, and they received more support from friends. These cross-sectional results are consistent with the Convoy Model and suggest that longitudinal research is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automatic prejudice in childhood and early adolescence.

Four cross-sectional studies are presented that investigated the automatic activation of prejudice in children and adolescents (aged 9 years to 15 years). Therefore, 4 different versions of the affective priming task were used, with pictures of ingroup and outgroup members being presented as prejudice-related prime stimuli. In all 4 studies, a pattern occurred that suggests a linear developmental increase of automatic prejudice with significant effects of outgroup negativity appearing only around the ages of 12 to 13 years. Results of younger children, on the contrary, did not indicate any effect of automatic prejudice activation. In contrast, prejudice effects in an Implicit Association Test (IAT) showed high levels of prejudice independent of age (Study 3). Results of Study 4 suggest that these age differences are due to age-related differences in spontaneous categorization processes. Introducing a forced-categorization into the affective priming procedure produced a pattern of results equivalent to that obtained with the IAT. These results suggest that although children are assumed to acquire prejudice at much younger ages, automatization of such attitudes might be related to developmental processes in early adolescence. We discuss possible theoretical implications of these results for a developmental theory of prejudice representation and automatization during childhood and adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in the relationship between perceived social support and student adjustment during early adolescence.

The current study is an investigation of early adolescents' perceptions of social support from parents, teachers, classmates, and close friends, and how that support is related to measures of students' adjustment on a range of behavioral indices. Data were collected on a sample of 246 students in Grades 6 through 8 using the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (CASSS), and the Parent Rating Scale of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC-PRS). Analyses using the social support subscale scores (Parent, Teacher, Classmate, and Close Friend) replicated past research in finding gender differences on mean levels of perceived social support, with girls perceiving higher levels of classmate and close friend support than boys. In addition, girls reported significantly more support from close friends than any other source, whereas boys reported significantly less support from classmates than any other source. Finally, results demonstrated gender differences in the relationship between social support and several indices of student adjustment, and provided evidence for the importance of considering gender differences in planning future research related to social support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation between values and social competence in early adolescence.

Examined relationships between the social competence of early adolescents, as viewed by different reference groups, and the values adolescents place on controversial social behaviors. Assessed social competence for 65 seventh- and eight-graders with self-ratings of perceived competence, peer sociometric status ratings, teacher ratings, and academic achievement tests. Ss also completed an inventory assessing their values toward controversial social behaviors. A factor reflecting adolescents' valuing of direct, constructive communication in social interactions was positively related to competence with all reference groups. However, a factor that reflected valuing conforming to adult norms was negatively related to status with peers but positively related to teacher ratings of competence. The role of social values in the developmental task of achieving autonomy in interactions with adults while maintaining positive social relationships with peers and adults is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disruptive school behavior and concepts of social convention in early adolescence.

Studied 22 7th- and 8th-grade students who had engaged in disruptive behaviors that involved violations of classroom regulations and defiance of authorities and 20 nondisruptive students. Both groups were administered an interview assessing concepts of social conventions, within a sequence of developmental levels. Disruptive Ss were reinterviewed 1 yr later, and behavioral records were reassessed. Disruptive school behavior was partially related to thinking (Level 4) characterized by rejection of conventional regulation; this preceded systematic conceptions of the role of conventional regulation in social organization (Level 5). At 1st testing, a greater proportion of disruptive than nondisruptive Ss displayed Level 4 thinking. One year later, 13 of the 20 originally disruptive Ss no longer displayed disruptive behavior. All Ss disruptive at Time 2 had not changed to the next level whereas the majority of those no longer disruptive shifted to the next level. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Getting by with a little help from self and others: Self-esteem and social support as resources during early adolescence.

Influences of social support and self-esteem on adjustment in early adolescence were investigated in a 2-year longitudinal study (N=350). Multi-informant data (youth and parent) were used to assess both overall levels and balance in peer- versus adult-oriented sources for social support and self-esteem. Findings obtained using latent growth-curve modeling were consistent with self-esteem mediating effects of social support on both emotional and behavioral adjustment. Lack of balance in social support and self-esteem in the direction of stronger support and esteem from peer-oriented sources predicted greater levels and rates of growth in behavioral problems. Results indicate a need for process-oriented models of social support and self-esteem and sensitivity to patterning of sources for each resource relative to adaptive demands of early adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sibling conflict in middle childhood predicts children's adjustment in early adolescence.

Associations between sibling conflict in middle childhood and psychological adjustment in early adolescence were studied in a sample of 80 boys and 56 girls. Parents and children provided self-report data about family relationships and children's adjustment. Parents' hostility to children was assessed from videotaped interactions. Results showed that sibling conflict at Time 1 predicted increases in children's anxiety, depressed mood, and delinquent behavior 2 years later. Moreover, earlier sibling conflict at Time 1 accounted for unique variance in young adolescents' Time 2 anxiety, depressed mood, and delinquent behavior above and beyond the variance explained by earlier maternal hostility and marital conflict. Children's adjustment at Time 1 did not predict sibling conflict at Time 2. Results highlight the unique significance of the earlier sibling relationship for young adolescents' psychological adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability and change in aggression and withdrawal in middle childhood and early adolescence.

Examined stability and change in aggression and withdrawal in the context of both normal and deviant behavioral development. The design included 3 age cohorts with a total of 653 Ss separated in age by 3 yrs. Aggression and withdrawal were measured using the Peer Evaluation Inventory initially when the Ss were in Grades 1, 4, and 7 and a 2nd time when the Ss were in Grades 4, 7, and 10, respectively. Members of 4 classification groups were included in the sample: 183 Ss in an aggressive group, 219 Ss in a withdrawn group, 251 Ss in an aggressive-withdrawn group, and a nondeviant control group consisting of 1,103 Ss. The stability of aggression was found to be moderately high, regardless of sex of S or grade at time of initial assessment. Moderate stability was found for withdrawal for both boys and girls when initial assessments were conducted at Grades 4 and 7. The withdrawn Ss became more withdrawn over the 3-yr period. It is concluded that, for many children, the problems of aggression and withdrawal do not appear to be transitory. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnicity and gender in late childhood and early adolescence: Group identity and awareness of bias.

The current study examined awareness of gender and ethnic bias and gender and ethnic identity in 350 African American, White/European American, and Latino/Hispanic students (Mage = 11.21 years, SD = 1.59) from the 4th, 6th, and 8th grades of diverse middle and elementary schools. The study collected (a) qualitative data to best capture the types of bias that were most salient to children and (b) daily diaries and individual measures to examine the multiple components of children's gender and ethnic identities. Results revealed ethnic, gender, and grade-level differences in awareness of ethnic and gender bias. Overall, more children were aware of gender bias than ethnic bias. This effect was most pronounced among White/European American youths. Among those in 4th grade, African American and Latino youths were more likely to be aware of ethnic bias than were White/European American youths. Analyses also examined how awareness of bias was related to gender and ethnic identity. For example, children who had a salient and important gender identity, and a devalued ethnic identity, were less likely than other children to be aware of ethnic bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sibling influences on gender development in middle childhood and early adolescence: A longitudinal study.

The development of gender role qualities (attitudes, personality, leisure activities) from middle childhood to early adolescence was studied to determine whether siblings' gender role qualities predicted those of their sisters and brothers. Participants were 198 firstborn and second-born siblings (Ms?=?10 years 9 months and 8 years 3 months, respectively, in Year 1) and their parents. Families were interviewed annually for 3 years. Firstborn siblings' qualities in Year 1 predicted second-born children's qualities in Year 3 when both parent and child qualities in Year 1 were controlled, a pattern consistent with a social learning model of sibling influence. Parental influence was more evident and sibling influence less evident in predicting firstborns' qualities; for firstborns, sibling influences suggested a de-identification process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ecology of depression in late childhood and early adolescence: A profile of daily states and activities.

This study investigated daily states and time use patterns associated with depression. Four hundred eighty-three 5th to 9th graders reported on their experience when signalled by pagers at random times. Depressed youth reported more negative affect and social emotions, lower psychological investment, lower energy, and greater variability in affect. These differences were weaker for 5th and 6th graders, suggesting that self-reported feeling states are a poor indicator of depression prior to adolescence. No differences were found in the daily activities of depressed youths nor in the amount of time spent alone, but depressed youths experienced other people as less friendly and more often reported wanting to be alone, especially when with their families. They also spent less time in public places and more time in their bedrooms. Finally, depressed boys, but not girls, spent much less time with friends, particularly of the same sex, suggesting that social isolation is more strongly associated with depression for boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental risk factors and children's achievement from middle childhood to early adolescence.

This study examined the long-term effects of low family income and stressful life events on math and reading achievement test percentile scores for 1,253 children. Four birth cohorts were followed for 2-4 years so that achievement across Grades 2 through 7 could be examined. Two types of analytic models, the multiplicative risk factor model and the cumulative risk model, were used. The moderating effects of ethnicity and gender were also explored. The results suggest that low income and minority ethnic status are significant risk factors for children's achievement. No systematic evidence was found for a large impact of life events on reading achievement, and the effects of such events on math achievement appear to be best understood as part of the larger context of multiple risk factors during childhood. The findings suggest a differential impact of risk factors on math achievement compared with reading achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sibling relationships from the preschool period through middle childhood and early adolescence.

Studied the stability and correlates of individual differences in children's relationships with their siblings between early childhood and adolescence in 39 sibling dyads, using home observations and maternal interviews in the early childhood period and interviews with mothers and children at the later time points. Stability of individual differences found over 7 yrs increased with age. The behavior of the other sibling in the preschool period related to both older and younger siblings' behavior at the last time point. Life events were associated with increased warmth between the children. By preadolescence, gender and SES were related to differences in the relationship. Multiple regression showed that preschool measures of sibling interaction contributed independently of gender and SES to the variance in individual differences in positive aspects of the relationship at early adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategies for making friends: Relations to social behavior and peer acceptance in early adolescence.

Examined relations among strategy knowledge about making friends, prosocial and antisocial behavior, and peer acceptance at school during early adolescence. Based on a sample of 423 6th- and 7th-grade students, findings indicated that knowledge of both appropriate and inappropriate strategies for making friends was related significantly to both types of social behavior and to peer acceptance. Results also suggested that displays of prosocial (but not antisocial) behavior represent an intermediate process that links knowledge about making friends to peer acceptance. These results were obtained even when taking into account significant relations of IQ to strategy knowledge, social behavior, and peer acceptance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding factors associated with early therapeutic alliance in PTSD treatment: Adherence, childhood sexual abuse history, and social support.

Objective: Therapeutic alliance has been associated with better treatment engagement, better adherence, and less dropout across various treatments and disorders. In treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), it may be particularly important to establish a strong early alliance to facilitate treatment adherence. However, factors such as childhood sexual abuse (CSA) history and poor social support may impede the development of early alliance in those receiving PTSD treatment. We sought to examine treatment adherence, CSA history, and social support as factors associated with early alliance in individuals with chronic PTSD who were receiving either prolonged exposure therapy (PE) or sertraline. Method: At pretreatment, participants (76.6% female; 64.9% Caucasian; mean age = 37.1 years, SD = 11.3) completed measures of trauma history, general support (Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors), and trauma-related social support (Social Reactions Questionnaire). Over the course of 10 weeks of PE or sertraline, they completed early therapeutic alliance (Working Alliance Inventory) and treatment adherence measures. Results: Early alliance was associated with PE adherence (r = .32, p     

Egocentrism and ego resiliency: Personality characteristics associated with perspective-taking from early childhood to adolescence.

Examined the longitudinal relation between ego resiliency and egocentrism in 58 females and 53 males who were assessed independently from 3 to 14 yrs of age. Measures of Level 1 and Level 2 egocentrism were administered to the Ss at 3 yrs of age, and personality evaluations (the California Child Q-Set) were obtained at 3, 4, 7, 11, and 14 yrs of age in the form of Q-sort ratings by independent sets of teachers and examiners. Ss' intelligence was measured with the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) when they were 4 yrs of age. The relation between egocentrism and ego resiliency was observed to depend on level of egocentrism and S's sex. For females, both Level 1 and Level 2 egocentrism were negatively correlated with ego resiliency concurrently at 3 yrs of age, but no long-term implications of egocentrism emerged. For males, Level 1 egocentrism was consistently negatively associated with ego resiliency from early childhood into adolescence. However, Level 2 egocentrism displayed no concurrent or any dependable longitudinal relation with ego resiliency. Findings support the usefulness of invoking personality characteristics to explain variations in cognitive-developmental levels among individuals. Possible interpretations of the relation between egocentrism and ego resiliency and the sex differences in the pattern of results are discussed. (72 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aggressive behavior in childhood and early adolescence: an ecological-developmental perspective on youth violence

This article reviews recent research on the development of aggressive behavior in childhood and early adolescence using an ecological perspective that focuses on social development in the family, school, peer group, and community. Special emphasis is placed on family processes and early childhood peer relations that appear to tip developmental trajectories toward social rejection at school and use of aggression to achieve social goals in interpersonal relationships. The article discusses implications for preventing youth violence.     

Genotype–environment correlations in late childhood and early adolescence: Antisocial behavioral problems and coercive parenting.

Akey question for understanding the interplay between nature and nurture in development is the direction of effects in socialization. As part of the Colorado Adoption Project, adopted children were classified as being at genetic risk (N?=?38) or not at genetic risk (N?=?50) for antisocial behavior based on their biological mothers self-report history of antisocial behavior collected prior to the birth of the child. From age 7 through age 12, adoptive parents reported on the negative control, positive parenting, and inconsistent parenting they use in managing their child's behavior. Repeated measures analysis of variance indicated that children at genetic risk were consistently more likely to receive negative parenting from their adoptive parents than children not at genetic risk, indicating an evocative genotype-environment correlation. However, the findings also showed that most of the association between negative parenting and children's externalizing behavior was not explicable on the basis of at evocative gene-environment correlation and that an additional environmentally mediated parental effect on children's behavior was plausible. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structure and development of causal€xperimental thought: From early adolescence to youth.

Investigated the structure and development of causal–experimental thought. 260 Ss (aged 12–16 yrs) were examined by 3 test batteries. The batteries involved items addressing combinatorial, hypothesis handling, experimentation, and model construction abilities. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that these abilities, although distinct from each other, do share a common functional core, and they are organized in a higher order causal–experimental specialized structural system. Rasch scaling indicated that these 4 kinds of abilities follow overlapping developmental trajectories. Saltus modeling suggested that development is continuous rather than discontinuous. Individual differences were found in the rate of acquisition but not in the structure of abilities. A model of synergic developmental causality was proposed to account for this pattern of development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Genotype-environment correlations in late childhood and early adolescence: antisocial behavioral problems and coercive parenting

A key question for understanding the interplay between nature and nurture in development is the direction of effects in socialization. A longitudinal adoption design provides a unique opportunity to investigate this issue in terms of genotype-environment correlations for behavioral problems. As part of the Colorado Adoption Project, adopted children were classified as being at genetic risk (N = 38) or not at genetic risk (N = 50) for antisocial behavior based on their biological mothers' self-report history of antisocial behavior collected prior to the birth of the child. From age 7 through age 12, adoptive parents reported on the negative control, positive parenting, and inconsistent parenting they use in managing their child's behavior. Repeated measures analysis of variance indicated that children at genetic risk were consistently more likely to receive negative parenting from their adoptive parents than children not at genetic risk, indicating an evocative genotype-environment correlation. However, the findings also showed that most of the association between negative parenting and children's externalizing behavior was not explicable on the basis of an evocative gene-environment correlation and that an additional environmentally mediated parental effect on children's behavior was plausible.