Experimental study of perforation and cracking of water-filled aluminum tubes impacted by steel spheres

Water-filled aluminum tubes were subjected to impact by six steel spherical projectiles of different diameters at impact velocities of 40–200 m/s. The effects of the diameter of the steel projectiles and of the material properties of the tubes on cracking and perforation were discussed. Water decreased the wall strength of the aluminum alloy tubes, and the impact velocity at which a steel projectile first passes through the tube wall decreased with increasing diameter of the steel projectile. Using the velocity at which the steel projectile perforates the tube wall, empirical equations of the energies required to perforate the tube wall were derived. Also, the energy balance in the steel projectile during a collision is discussed referring to the pressure history in the filled water and the velocities of the steel projectile before and after collision.     

高能炸药驱动下弹体膨胀破碎过程试验研究

为了获得高能炸药驱动下战斗部壳体破碎机理,选取新型弹体材料30CrMnSiNi2A钢、40CrMnSiB钢以及典型弹体材料50SiMnVB钢,采用超高速摄影技术拍摄壳体静爆,获得了不同弹体材料壳体膨胀破碎过程,引入弹体径向膨胀系数,建立了考虑弹体材料性能影响的壳体径向膨胀距离随时间变化的函数关系式,并试验测定了三种材料弹体形成破片的最大初速。分析试验结果发现,新型弹体材料壳体膨胀速度和破片初速更大,相比50SiMnVB钢壳体,30CrMnSiNi2A钢和40CrMnSiB钢壳体形成破片的最大初速分别提高了19.0%和31.9%。不同合金钢材料壳体形成破片初速沿壳体轴向分布规律相同,最大初速出现在距起爆点约70%圆筒长度处。该研究结果将为杀爆战斗部壳体材料选取及设计提供参考依据。     

CAVITY MODELS FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW PROJECTILES

Two analytical models for the crater size generated by long-rod and thick-walled tube projectiles are presented. The first is based on energy; in a steady-state penetration, the kinetic energy loss of a projectile is related to the total energy deposited in the target. This simple approach provides an upper bound for the crater size. The second approach is based on the observation that two mechanisms are involved in cavity growth due to long projectiles: flow of projectile erosion products, which exerts radial stress on the target and opens a cavity, and radial momentum of the target as it flows around the projectile nose (cavitation). This analysis includes the centrifugal force exerted by the projectile, radial momentum of the target, and the strength of the target. Thus, it can estimate the extent of cavity growth due to projectile mushrooming, which cannot be predicted by other analyses. This model is shown to be in good agreement with experimental data.     

玻璃纤维-不锈钢网混杂增强环氧树脂层合板对球形弹斜冲击响应特性实验研究

为了研究玻璃纤维-不锈钢网混杂增强环氧树脂层合板在球形弹高速斜冲击下的损伤特性,利用一级气炮对2 mm厚度的玻璃纤维增强环氧树脂复合材料层合板和含一层、三层304不锈钢网的玻璃纤维-不锈钢网混杂增强环氧树脂层合板进行倾角为30°的冲击实验,以揭示304不锈钢网对层合板弹道极限和能量吸收的影响规律,并分析层合板损伤特征及其机理。通过实验发现,含有三层不锈钢网层合板的弹道极限最高,而不含不锈钢网层合板和含一层不锈钢网层合板的弹道极限速度接近。层合板吸收的能量随着弹体速度增加呈现出先增加后趋于平稳,然后急剧上升的趋势。层合板损伤模式为基体开裂和破碎、分层、不锈钢丝拉伸断裂、纤维拉伸断裂和剪切断裂。层合板分层损伤面积随弹体速度增大先增大后减小,最后趋于稳定。当弹体速度较低时,层合板主要发生纤维拉伸断裂、基体开裂、层间有分层损伤产生。随着弹体速度的增大,层合板正面纤维逐渐发生压剪断裂、基体破碎,背面纤维发生严重的拉伸撕裂。      

Energy absorption during projectile perforation of thin steel plates and the kinetic energy of ejected fragments

This paper concerns energy absorption in thin (0.4 mm) steel plates during perforation by spherical projectiles of hardened steel, at impact velocities between 200 and 600 m s⁻¹. Absorbed energies have been obtained from measured incident and emergent projectile velocities. These tests were simulated using ABAQUS/Explicit, using the Johnson and Cook plasticity model. A strain rate-dependent, critical plastic strain fracture criterion was employed to model fracture. Good agreement is obtained between simulations and experiment and the model successfully captures the transitions in failure mode as projectile velocity increases. At velocities close to the ballistic limit, the plates fail by dishing and discing. As the incident velocity is increased, there are two transitions in failure mode, firstly to shear plugging and secondly to fragmentation and petalling. The simulations also show that, during the latter mode of failure, the kinetic energy of ejected debris is significant, and failure to include this contribution in the energy balance leads to a substantial over-estimate of the energy absorbed within the sheet. Information is also presented relating to the strain rates at which plastic deformation occurs within the sample under different conditions. These range up to about 10⁵ s⁻¹, with the corresponding strain rate hardening effect being quite substantial (factor of 2–3 increase in stress).     

弹体头部形状对碳纤维层合板抗冲击性能影响实验研究

为研究弹体头部形状对碳纤维层合板抗冲击性能的影响,利用一级气炮发射卵形头弹、半球形头弹和平头弹,对2 mm厚碳纤维层合板进行了冲击实验。利用公式拟合处理实验数据,揭示弹体头部形状对靶板弹道极限与能量吸收的影响,并且分析靶板冲击损伤形貌及机理特征。研究结果表明:平头弹弹道极限最高,半球形头弹次之,卵形头弹最低。弹体在低速度冲击时,弹体头部形状对靶板能量吸收率的影响更为显著。平头弹冲击时,靶板迎弹面受到均匀分布的环向剪切力,纤维同时被剪切,基体发生大面积剪切破坏。半球形头弹冲击时,靶板迎弹面受到非均匀分布的剪切力和挤压作用,纤维发生剪切断裂和拉伸断裂,基体发生剪切破坏和挤压破碎。卵形头弹冲击时,纤维发生单一的拉伸断裂,而基体则发生挤压破碎。弹体头部形状对靶板损伤的影响主要集中在迎弹面和中部纤维层。     

Deformation and fracture of a long-rod projectile induced by an oblique moving plate: Experimental tests

The influence of projectile length to diameter ratio (15, 30 and 45), plate thickness (0.5, 1 and 2 projectile diameters), projectile velocity (1500, 2000 and 2500 m/s) and plate velocity (−300 to 300 m/s) on the interaction between long-rod tungsten projectiles and oblique steel plates (obliquity 60°) was studied experimentally in small-scale reverse impact tests. The residual projectiles and their motions were characterised in terms of changes in length, velocity, angular momentum, linear momentum and kinetic energy. The parameters found to have the largest influence on the disturbance of the projectile were the plate velocity, in particular its direction, and the thickness of the plate. In the ranges studied, the influence of length to diameter ratio and of projectile velocity were found to be less important.     

层合复合材料冲击损伤破坏过程研究(Ⅰ)——数值分析

基于连续损伤力学,对弹丸冲击复合材料多层板靶的变形-损伤过程给出了必要的基本方程,进行了三维有限元分析.将靶板处理为具有材料各向异性和结构非均匀性;冲击引起的微损伤是各向异性的,造成材料的非线性;冲击造成的局部大变形,构成几何非线性.宏观损伤(包括层内基体开裂、纤维断裂和层间分层)在有限元分析中用节点分裂法处理.钢质弹丸假设是线弹性的,不考虑它在冲击过程中的损伤.计算结果表明,采用本文中提出的方法,能较好地模拟复合材料层合板受弹丸冲击时的损伤、变形过程.     

Influence of conical projectile diameter on perpendicular impact of thin steel plate

A numerical study of conical projectiles for perpendicular impact on a thin steel plate is reported. The target material considered, Weldox 460 E steel, is frequently used for this kind of application and several results of experiments are available in the international literature to verify numerical simulations. The Johnson-Cook constitutive relation coupled with the Johnson-Cook failure criterion have been applied to analyse penetration of the target and also the failure process. The analysis has been focussed on the influence of the projectile diameter on the perforation process, assuming the same projectile mass. The aim was to preserve the same initial kinetic energy and identical nose angle. The goal is to estimate the ballistic limit, the residual velocity, the plastic work, and the temperature levels produced during the penetration process. The analysis has shown a linear increase of the ballistic limit with the projectile diameter.     

Experimental and numerical investigation on the deformation and failure behavior in the Taylor test

The present paper presents an experimental and numerical study concerning the deformation and failure behavior in the Taylor impact test. Projectiles manufactured from a commercial high strength and super-hard aluminum alloy 7A04-T6 with a nominal diameter of 12.6 mm and a length of 50.8 mm were fired against a hardened tool steel plate by a one- and two-stage compressed gas gun within the velocity range of 175–370 m/s. Three different deformation and failure modes were observed from the test: mushrooming, shear cracking and fragmentation. Individual velocity ranges and the transitions between the deformation/failure modes are identified by both experiments and numerical simulations. Slightly modified Johnson–Cook models of strength and accumulative damage failure are employed in 3D numerical simulations to describe material behavior of the striking cylinders. Good agreement between the numerical simulations and the experimental results was found. Detailed computational results of each scenario are offered to understand the deformation and failure mechanisms.     

Impact of thick PMMA plates by long projectiles at low velocities. Part I: Effect of head’s shape

A hybrid experimental–numerical investigation of the penetration process in thick polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) plates was carried out. The response of such plates to the impact of long hard steel projectiles having either blunt, hemispherical or ogive-head shapes was investigated experimentally in the range of velocities of 100 (m/s) < V₀ < 250 (m/s). The penetration process can be divided into 3 stages: entrance, propagation and backwards bouncing. The last two stages are associated with brittle fracture of the plates. The tests were modeled using 3D explicit finite element analyses. The numerical results provide insight regarding the variations of field variables such as stresses, velocities, resisting forces and energies. A good agreement regarding the trajectory of the projectile and the depths of penetration is obtained. The enhanced backwards bouncing phenomenon is explained, and it is shown that the average deceleration during the penetration process is constant. The resisting force to the penetration is higher for blunt projectiles. It is 10% lower for the hemispherical head and 50% lower for ogive-headed projectiles.     

Impact of thick PMMA plates by long projectiles at low velocities. Part II: Effect of confinement

A hybrid experimental–numerical investigation of the penetration process in unconfined and confined thick polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) plates was carried out. The confinement was applied by insertion of the polymeric plate into a conical steel ring. The response of such plates to the impact of long hard steel projectiles having an ogive-head shape in the range of velocities of 165 < V₀ < 260 (m/s), was investigated experimentally. The results show that unconfined targets were perforated and broken due to combined effect of penetration and cracking. By contrast, the confined targets were not perforated and could withstand repeated impacts due to suppression of the brittle damage mechanism by the confinement. The tests were modeled using 3D explicit finite element analyses. A good agreement regarding the trajectory of the projectile and the depths of penetration was obtained. The numerical results show that the confinement introduces a negative triaxiality and even some plasticity within the confined plates prior to impact. The increase of plastic failure strain of the PMMA at negative triaxiality reduces the ductile damage during penetration, while the hydrostatic pressure reduces significantly the brittle fracture mechanism. The resisting force to the penetration depends on the failure strain–triaxality relationship, and does not necessarily increase with higher confinement levels.     

Effect of thin oblique moving plates on long rod projectiles: A reverse impact study

The geometry and motion of long rod projectiles after penetrating thin obliquely oriented and moving armour plates were studied. Plates moving in their normal directions towards as well as away from the projectile (scalar product of velocities negative and positive, respectively) were considered. The influences of plate velocity and obliquity (angle between the normal of the plate and the axis of the projectile) were investigated through small-scale reverse impact tests with tungsten projectiles of length 30 mm and diameter 2 mm, and with 2 mm-thick steel plates. The obliquity (30°, 60° and 70°) and the plate velocity (300 to −300 m/s) were varied systematically for a projectile velocity of 2000 m/s. The disturbing effect of the plate on the projectile was characterised in terms of changes in length, velocity, angular momentum, linear momentum and kinetic energy. Plates with obliquity 60–70° moving away from the projectiles with velocity 200–300 m/s were found to cause extensive fragmentation of the projectile and to have large disturbing effects in terms of all measures used.     

Applications of fullerene beams in analysis of thin layers

Molecular dynamics computer simulations have been employed to model ejection of particles from Ag{1 1 1} metal substrate and thin benzene overlayer bombarded by fullerene cluster projectiles. The sputtering yields are analyzed depending on the size (from C₂₀ up to C₅₄₀) and the kinetic energy (5-20 keV) of a projectile. It has been found that for clean metal substrate bombarded by 15 keV projectiles the maximum ejection is stimulated by the impact of the C₆₀ cluster. However, the size of the cluster projectile maximizing the yield depends on the kinetic energy of the cluster, shifting towards larger clusters as the impact energy increases. For a thin benzene overlayer, the yield increases monotonically with the size of the cluster within investigated range of fullerene projectiles and kinetic energies.     

Impact deformation of polymeric projectiles

Post-impact deformation of projectiles is studied in relation to flyer-plate thickness and standoff distance from a rigid anvil, without significant penetration and perforation of the flyer plate. A close-range photogrammetric measuring technique is used to determine the final profiles of polymeric cylindrical projectiles. This non-destructive measurement technique is utilized to study the effects of projectile nose geometry on the high rate deformation process, at speeds ranging from 100 to 600 m/s, in connection with metal sheet deformation during impact spot welding. An Imacon ultra-high speed camera is used to photograph the deforming polymeric projectiles.     

The influence of plate hardness on the ballistic penetration of thick steel plates

This investigation describes and analyses the experimental results pertinent to the penetration of steel plates of varying hardness in the range HV295–HV520 and of thickness 20 and 80 mm by ogive-shaped 20-mm-diameter projectiles over the velocity range 300–800 m s⁻¹. All the tests were carried out at normal impact angle, i.e. zero obliquity. The experimental results presented include the variation of depth of penetration, crater volume, lip height, bulge height and diameter, plugged length and diameter and specific energy absorption capacity with impact velocity for tests on each plate of a given hardness and thickness. Selected data and observations relating to the plastic zone size and shape surrounding the penetrating projectile, incidence and extent of adiabatic shear band (ASB) formation and plate spalling have also been presented. These experimental data have been interpreted in terms of the appropriate penetration mechanisms like ductile hole formation, bulging followed by star cracking, ASB-induced shear plugging, etc., and also by making use of the fact that the projectile undergoes substantial deformation when penetrating the harder plates (HV450 and HV520). It is also demonstrated that the resistance to penetration and hence the mechanism of penetration is very much dependent on whether the penetration occurs under plane strain or plane stress conditions. For example, ASB-induced plugging occurs only under plane stress conditions while projectile deformation is dominant only under plane strain conditions even in harder plates.     

钝头弹高速斜侵彻中厚背水金属靶板的机理研究

为探讨高速钝头弹斜侵彻中厚背水金属靶板的机理,根据不同的受力状态及耗能机制,结合中厚背水靶板抗高速斜侵彻特点,通过厚度等效,将斜侵彻转化为相应的正侵彻。然后,将整个侵彻过程分为压缩镦粗、剪切压缩和剪切扰动三个阶段。基于三阶段侵彻机制,建立了钝头弹高速斜穿甲中厚背水金属靶板后的瞬时余速计算模型,并讨论了该计算模型的局限性。采用该模型计算了3.3 g立方体弹丸斜穿甲5 mm背水钢板后的瞬时余速,理论计算值与试验结果及相应的仿真计算值均吻合较好。由于该模型考虑了靶后水介质的动支撑作用及动能耗散等效应,在一定的适用范围内,能对钝头弹高速斜侵彻中厚背水金属靶板的瞬时余速进行合理地预测,具有一定的理论价值和工程应用价值。     

Organic mass spectrometry with low-energy projectiles

Molecular dynamics computer simulations have been employed to elucidate mechanisms responsible for uplifting of a monolayer of benzene and polystyrene molecules adsorbed on Ag{1 1 1} by low-energy atomic and cluster Ar projectiles. The sputtering yield and mass distributions of ejected particles are analyzed depending on the type and the kinetic energy of a projectile. It is shown that the relative contribution of intact molecules can be greatly enhanced if the kinetic energy of atomic projectile is reduced below 60 eV. At these energies, however, the efficiency of desorption is low and the ejection process is limited only to loosely bound molecules. Much better results can be obtained for cluster projectiles containing hundreds of Ar atoms with the incident energy of a few eV per atom. The impact of such particles leads to a gentle and very efficient removal of intact organic molecules originally adsorbed at the surface.     

On the ballistic performance of metallic materials

The paper presents a ballistic performance index for metallic armour materials in terms of the commonly determined mechanical properties such as strength and modulus. The index is derived using an energy-balance approach, where the kinetic energy of the projectile is assumed to be absorbed by the elastic and the plastic deformation involved in the penetration process as well as the kinetic energy imparted to the target material during deformation. The derivation assumes two distinct stages to exist during the penetration of the projectile. At the striking face of the armour, the material is assumed to flow radially in a constrained deformation region but longitudinally at the rear surface leading to typically observed bulging of the armour without constraint. The index is validated using the available experimental and empirical data obtained in the case of small arm projectiles for an impact velocity of about 800 m/sec. This index is expected to facilitate the development of metallic armour, since the number of the ballistic experiments can be reduced significantly and only the promising materials need to be considered.     

Festigkeit von Werkstoffen bei Aufprallbeanspruchungen

Strength of Materials in Case of Mechanical Impact The resistance of materials to mechanical impact was investigated in the context of safety of guards used in machine tools. Such guards are meant to protect persons from injuries caused by parts which, in the case of technical failure, are projected at high speeds out of the work zone of the machine. Impact tests with blunt, cylindrical projectiles were carried out on steel and aluminium sheets and on polycarbonate and polymethylmetacrylate shields. The measure of impact strength was the ultimate projectile energy which could be applied to the specimen without causing perforation. The impact strength of new 8-mm-polycarbonate shields turned out to be approximately comparable to that of 3-mm-steel sheets St 12.03. Polycarbonate, however, when it is exposed to cooling lubricants as they are used in machining processes, suffers from a strong reduction of its impact strength. In the tests, there was good proportionality between the impact strength of the materials and their thickness, ultimate tensile strength and fracture elongation. In addition, the impact strength increased as the projectile diameter got bigger.