Alumina carbon/epoxy laminates under cyclic loading

The behaviour of alumina carbon/epoxy laminate under cyclic loading was investigated. The laminate was constructed by alternating dense alumina thin plates with unidirectional carbon/epoxy (C/E) prepreg tapes. Several cyclic load amplitudes were applied in unidirectional tension, corresponding to the stresses at onset of cracks in the alumina layers. The experimental results revealed high threshold stresses before damage occurred. These threshold stresses are matched with the stresses at onset of cracks in the alumina layers at static tensile tests. When the maximum stresses exceed this threshold, a very rapid stiffness reduction follows. The rate of loss of stiffness was examined. The short range rate was varied as a function of the maximum stress amplitude, but the long-term rate of loss of stiffness was found to be independent of the maximum stresses. A plastic shakedown mechanism was evident for cracked system undergoing high number of cycles, and is attributed to the nearly elastic plastic feature of the epoxy, the bonding agent between the alumina and the C/E layers. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Damage development in carbon/epoxy laminates under quasi-static and dynamic loading

The contrasting characteristics of damage evolution have been examined in a multidirectional carbon/epoxy composite laminate (IM7/8551-7) subjected to both quasi-static and dynamic loading. Our experiments were performed on bend-test bars that were loaded either in ‘supported' four-point bending or under ‘unsupported' conditions with a Hopkinson pressure bar to induce dynamic loading. We found differences in the damage that occurred in specimens loaded by the two techniques, in terms of the number of cracks and the length of the cracks. In the case of quasi-static loading, there were many matrix cracks within individual plies and only a few delamination cracks between plies; the maximum ratio of numbers of matrix to delamination cracks observed was 6:1. Despite their small number, the delamination cracks had a greater total length than the matrix cracks, and specimen failure occurred as a result of delamination crack propagation. During dynamic loading, the ratio between numbers of matrix and delamination cracks was 3:1, and in this case the ratio between the total crack lengths was unity. A quantitative assessment of damage induced during quasi-static bending was made from specimen stiffness results. Using simple beam theory and knowing the location of the damage, we correlated beam stiffness to the materials effective elastic modulus. We found that the composite's effective modulus decreased rapidly with small amounts of initial damage, but that subsequent increases in damage decreased the effective modulus at a much lower rate.     

Bearing strength of carbon epoxy laminates under static and dynamic loading

An experimental study has been carried out to investigate both the static and dynamic bearing strengths of a pinned-joint carbon epoxy composite plate with [0°/45°/−45°/90°]_S and [90°/45°/−45°/0°]_S stacking configurations. The static and dynamic experiments have been carried out according to the ASTM D953 standards and ASTM STP 749, respectively [ASTM D 953-D, Standard Test method for Bearing Strength of Plastics, ASTM Designation. 342; Joining of Composite Materials, ASTM STP 749, American Society for Testing and Materials (1981) 131]. The ratio of the edge distance to the pin diameter (E/D), and that of the width to the pin diameter (W/D) of the specimens were varied to obtain the static bearing strength and the S–N fatigue curve. The experiments show that the static bearing strengths reach their upper limit when E/D and W/D ratios are equal to or greater than 4 for both [0°/45°/−45°/90°]_S and [90°/45°/−45°/0°]_S stacking sequences. The fatigue strength, on the other hand, reduces by up to 65% as E/D and W/D ratios increase for both stacking configurations.     

考虑时间和温度影响的复合材料开孔层板压缩失效分析

鉴于复合材料性能的时间-温度相关性,对固化后的树脂基体(5228A)进行了动力学分析(Dynamic Mechanical Analysis,DMA),得到了试验窗口中不同温度下的储能模量曲线片段,利用封闭平移(Closed Form Shifting,CFS)方法对其进行扩展,建立了主曲线并得到了曲线片段对应的平移因子。根据加速试验方法(Accelerated Testing Methodology,ATM),分别以两种铺层的准各向同性开孔层板(CCF300/5228A)为研究对象,建立了匀应变率(Constant Strain Rate,CSR)压缩强度主曲线。借助微距拍摄和超声波C扫描,对其渐进损伤过程和不同温度下的破坏形貌进行了观测。结果表明:即使温度低于玻璃态转变温度,树脂基体动态力学性能也会随时间的增加而降低;单层较厚的开孔层板压缩强度对时间和温度更加敏感,而单层较薄的开孔层板则具有更好的损伤容限性能;温度升高、加载速率降低时,开孔层板压缩最终破坏主导因素从分层损伤趋于纤维屈曲。     

Response of notched carbon/PEEK and carbon/epoxy laminates subjected to tension fatigue loading

In this study a comparison is made between the tensile static and fatigue behaviours of quasi-isotropic carbon/PEEK and carbon/epoxy notched laminates, selected as separate representatives of both tough and brittle matrix composites. Damage progression was monitored by various non-destructive (ultrasonic scanning and x-radiography) and destructive (deply and microscopic examinations) techniques, and by continuously measuring the change in stiffness, in order to identify the effect of damage on mechanical properties.
The experimental observations indicated that fatigue damage in carbon/epoxy laminates consists of a combination of matrix cracks, longitudinal splitting and delaminations which attenuate the stress concentration and suppress fibre fracture at the notch; as a consequence, fatigue failure can be reached only after very high numbers of cycles while tensile residual strengths continuously increase over the range of lives investigated (10³–10⁶ cycles). Due to the superior matrix toughness and the high fibre-matrix adhesion, the nature of fatigue damage in carbon/PEEK laminates strongly depends on the stress level. At high stresses the absence of early splitting and delaminations promotes the propagation of fibre fracture therefore resulting in poor fatigue performances and significant strength reductions; while at low stress levels damage modes are matrix controlled and this again translates into very long fatigue lives. These results indicate a strong influence of the major damage mechanisms typical of the two material systems on the behaviour of the laminates, with the nature, more than the amount, of damage appearing as the controlling parameter of the material response up to failure.     

Thermal cycling under vacuum and CME evaluation of carbon/epoxy laminates

Dealing with the « French Supersonic Aircraft Research Program», thermal cycling tests in four environments, neutral (vacuum, nitrogen) and oxidative (air, oxygen), were performed on carbon/epoxy cross ply laminates [0₃/90₃]_S. This experimental study was conducted following a local approach through optical and scanning electron microscopy observations and X radiographs and showed a significant effect of the oxygen level on the damage development. Moreover, coefficient of moisture expansion (CME) tests were performed on the same material to characterize the influence of moisture on the sample expansion.     

Characterization of melded carbon fibre/epoxy laminates

‘Melding’ is a novel in situ method for joining thermosetting composite structures, without the need of adhesives. Laminate joining is achieved using uncrosslinked resin matrix of the pre-preg. This study used Hexply914C pre-preg material to characterize melded CFRP structures produced using the melding method. A designated area of a laminate was maintained at temperatures below 40 °C retaining uncured (B-staged) material, while the remainder of the laminate was cured at 175 °C. After a 2.5 h cure cycle, the cured region showed a high degree of cure (0.88) and glass transition temperature (176 °C). The uncured area of the same laminate was cured in a second stage, simulating an in situ melded joint. By controlling the temperature and duration of the intermediate dwell and affecting minimum viscosity values prior to final cure, low values of porosity (<0.5%) were achieved. The mechanical properties of the resulting joint were consistent throughout the melded laminate. Flexural strength (1600 MPa), flexural modulus (100–105 MPa) and short beam strength (105–115 MPa) values observed where equivalent or greater than those found in the recommended autoclave cured control specimens. After the entire laminate was post cured, glass transition temperatures of 230 °C (peak tan δ) were observed in all areas of the laminate.     

Fracture behavior of cross-ply graphite/ epoxy laminates

Fracture behavior of cross-ply (0/90)_4s, (0/90)_10s, (0₂/90₂)_2s and (0₄/90₈/0₄)_T laminates of T300/934 graphite/epoxy material was studied using compact tension specimens of several widths and thicknesses, center notched tension and three point bend specimens. The process of damage initiation and propagation was studied and is discussed in detail. The critical stress intensity factor was evaluated and its variation with specimen size and type is shown. On the basis of these investigations, a suitable specimen for the evaluation of meaningful fracture toughness is suggested.     

Elasto-plastic behavior of thermoplastic composite laminates under cyclic loading

An experimental and numerical study of the elasto-plastic behavior of thermoplastic matrix composite laminates under static and cyclic loads is presented. Off-axis and angle ply specimens cut from laminates of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) reinforced with continuous carbon fibers have been tested under cyclic sinusoidal tensile loads and the hysteresis loops have been monitored. A micro mechanical model, which includes a parabolic criteria based on the plastic behavior of the matrix, has been adopted to study the composite non-linear behavior and a correlation between plastic deformation and a strong rise of damping and temperature at high stresses is outlined. Good agreement is shown between theory and experimental results. The mathematical mdoel presented here can be used to predict the visco-elastic-plastic response of the material at high stresses and its influence in the fatigue damage.     

Experimental and analytical characterization of transverse cracking behavior in carbon/bismaleimide cross-ply laminates under mechanical fatigue loading

Transverse cracking behavior in high temperature bismaleimide-based carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) laminates under fatigue loading was observed. Three types of cross-ply laminate, [0/90₂/0], [0₂/90₃/0₂] and [0₂/90₄/0₂], were tested to study the effect of ply thickness. Damage observation was conducted using two methods. Optical microscopy and soft X-ray radiography were used for edge and internal damage observation, respectively. Variational approach was used to derive the energy release rate associated with transverse cracking. Multiplication of transverse cracks was modeled based on modified Paris-law approach.     

Strength of carbon/epoxy laminates with countersunk hole

The aim of this study is to predict the static strength of carbon/epoxy laminates with countersunk hole. Also, three-point bend (TPB) specimens with the same lay-up were analysed. For this purpose, the notched strength of the laminates was analysed by a damage zone model (DZM), where damage around the notch is represented by an ‘equivalent crack’ with cohesive forces acting between the crack surfaces. The DZM requiring only basic properties of the laminate such as unnotched tensile strength, δ₀, fracture energy, G_c^*, and stiffnesses of the laminate. However, the complex geometry around the countersunk hole implies that both δ₀ and G_c^* will vary in this area, and in order to avoid this problem an approximate geometry of the countersunk hole is used in the DZM-calculations. With this approximation, good agreement between experimental and calculated strength was observed for the laminates with countersunk hole. This was also the case for the TPB specimens.     

动态载荷下C/C复合材料的压缩破坏行为

利用电子万能试验机以及Split Hopkinson Compressive Bar(SHPB)测试了2DC/C复合材料在准静态、动态载荷下的压缩性能,结合光学显微镜分析了其在不同应变率下的破坏形貌、讨论了应变率对压缩破坏形貌的影响。结果表明:与准静态(10-4/s)相比,动态载荷下(5×102/s)复合材料的压缩强度提高了55%,压缩刚度提高了66%,具有较强的应变率效应;在准静态载荷下,C/C复合材料沿40°角剪切破坏,断口上炭纤维破坏具有溃散及剪切破坏特征,而在动态载荷下,C/C复合材料破坏成大小不一的碎片,其炭纤维破坏具有劈裂特征。C/C复合材料破坏模式的不同可归结为基体及界面强度的应变率效应。     

Cryogenic fatigue behavior of plain weave glass/epoxy composite laminates under tension-tension cycling

This paper focuses on understanding the tension-tension fatigue behavior of woven glass fiber reinforced polymer laminates at cryogenic temperatures. Tension-tension fatigue tests at frequencies of 4 and 10 Hz with a stress ratio of 0.1 were conducted at room temperature, 77 and 4 K. The fatigue stress versus cycles to failure (S-N) relationships and fatigue limits for 10⁶ cycles were obtained. Fractured specimens tested under fatigue tests were also examined with optical microscope.     

Failure assessment on central-sharp notched carbon/epoxy laminates

Fracture models to predict the strength of laminated composites having sharp notches demand the un-notched strength and the critical damage size ahead of the notch. The critical damage size, in general, depends on the material, geometry of the specimen and size of the sharp notch. The extraordinary success of a fracture model lies in its ability to combine a theoretical framework with experimentally measured quantities. Modifications are made in one of the stress-fracture criteria known as the point stress criterion for accurate prediction of notched tensile strength of composite laminates containing sharp notches. To examine the adequacy of these modifications, fracture data of central-sharp notched carbon/epoxy composite laminates with various lay-ups are considered. The notched strength estimates are found to be close to the test results. The modified point stress criterion is very simple and accurate in predicting the notched tensile strength of laminated composites.     

Dynamic fracture of carbon nanotube/epoxy composites under high strain-rate loading

We investigate dynamic fracture of three types of multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)/epoxy composites and neat epoxy under high strain-rate loading (${10}^5''–''{10}^6$ s⁻¹). The composites include randomly dispersed, 1 wt%, functionalized and pristine CNT/epoxy composites, as well as laminated, ∼50 wt% CNT buckypaper/epoxy composites. The pristine and functionalized CNT composites demonstrate spall strength and fracture toughness slightly higher and lower than that of neat epoxy, respectively, and the spall strength of laminated CNT buckypaper/epoxy composites is considerably lower; both types of CNTs reduce the extent of damage. Pullout, sliding and immediate fracture modes are observed; the fracture mechanisms depend on the CNT–epoxy interface strength and fiber strength, and other microstructures such as the interface between CNT laminates. Compared to the functionalized CNT composites, weaker CNT–epoxy interface strength and higher fiber strength lead to a higher probability of sliding fracture and higher tensile strength in the pristine CNT composites at high strain rates. On the contrary, sliding fracture is more pronounced in the functionalized CNT composites under quasistatic loading, a manifestation of a loading-rate effect on fracture modes. Despite their helpful sliding fracture mode and large CNT content, the weak laminate–laminate interfaces play a detrimental role in fracture of the laminated CNT buckypaper/epoxy composites. Regardless of materials, increasing strain rates leads to pronounced rise in tensile strength and fracture toughness.     

Deformation behavior of woven glass/epoxy composite substrate under thermo-mechanical loading

The deformation behaviors of woven glass/epoxy composite substrate under four thermo-mechanical loading paths, i.e. rectangular and triangular paths in clockwise and anticlockwise directions within a temperature range of 25–250 °C were investigated. Temperature scanning tests were conducted to identify the viscoelastic property of the material. The glass transition temperature of the composite substrate was 138 °C, above which significant reduction of storage modulus was observed. The deformation behavior of the composite substrate was temperature and history dependent, and change of deformation rate resulted from state transition was noticeable. The residual deformation of specimen following the anticlockwise rectangular loading path was the largest in contrast with the lowest in clockwise rectangular path. The residual deformations in two triangular paths were close after each cycle.     

Cryogenic delamination growth in woven glass/epoxy composite laminates under mixed-mode I/II fatigue loading

This paper investigates the fatigue delamination growth behavior in woven glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite laminates under mixed-mode I/II conditions at cryogenic temperatures. Fatigue delamination tests were performed with the mixed-mode bending (MMB) test apparatus at room temperature, liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K), in order to obtain the delamination growth rate as a function of the range of the energy release rate, and the dependence of the delamination growth behavior on the temperature and the mixed-mode ratio of mode I and mode II was examined. The energy release rate was evaluated using three-dimensional finite element analysis. The fractographic examinations by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were also carried out to assess the mixed-mode fatigue delamination growth mechanisms in the woven GFRP laminates at cryogenic temperatures.