Social comparison and depression: Company's effect on misery.

Two studies examined the social comparison processes of 50 depressed and 48 nondepressed college students selected on the basis of their scores on the Beck Depression Inventory. In the 1st study, Ss' preferences for information from others were assessed after they had received a manipulation intended to improve or worsen their mood states. The responses of the depressed Ss provide evidence of downward comparison: They indicate a preference for information from people who were experiencing negative affect, but only when they themselves were also experiencing relatively negative affect, not when their moods had been temporarily improved. In the 2nd study, Ss' moods were assessed before and after they had received information indicating another person was currently experiencing highly negative affect. This information had little effect on the nondepressed Ss; however, the mood states of the depressed Ss improved after they read the information. Results suggest that realizing that others are doing worse may help depressed persons to feel somewhat better. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of depressive affect.

The effects of different types of responses to a depressed mood on the duration and severity of the mood were examined. On the basis of S. Nolen-Hoeksema's (see record 1987-18933-001) response styles theory of depression, it was hypothesized that distracting, active responses would be more effective in alleviating a depressed mood than would ruminative, passive responses. A depressed mood was induced in 35 male and 34 female Ss, and Ss were randomly assigned to engage in 1 of 4 types of responses: an active task that distracted them from their mood; a passive, distracting task; an active task designed to lead to ruminations about their mood; or a passive, ruminative task. As predicted, the greatest remediation of depressed mood was found in Ss in the distracting-active response condition, followed in order by the distracting-passive, ruminative-active, and ruminative-passive response conditions. Degree of rumination had a greater impact on remediation of depressive affect than level of activity, with greater rumination leading to lesser remediation of depressive affect. In addition, the effects of the response tasks were limited to depressed mood. The implications of these results for interventions with depressed persons are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of depression level and length of acquaintance on reaction of others to a request for help.

Examined an interpersonal-process view of depression by assessing 60 undergraduates' reactions to a request for help from a hypothetical depressed or nondepressed person with whom they had been acquainted for a relatively short (2 wks) or long (1 yr) period of time. Ss responded to each of the 4 hypothetical persons by indicating their probable affective reactions to the request, the number of minutes they would be willing to help, their desire for future social contact with the hypothetical person, and their expectations of future requests for help. Results indicate that Ss felt significantly more concern and were willing to provide significantly more time for long-term acquaintances. Requests from depressed persons elicited significantly more anger and social rejection but equal amounts of concern and willingness to help. This mixed response pattern was interpreted as providing partial support for an interpersonal-process view of depression. A path analysis provided limited support for J. C. Coyne's (see record 1979-01146-001) hypothesis that rejection of depressed persons results from the negative mood they induce in others. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-discrepancies in clinical depression and social phobia: Cognitive structures that underlie emotional disorders?

Previous research indicates that self-discrepancies are cognitive structures that can induce emotional discomfort. The present study compared clinically depressed and social phobic subjects (plus controls) to determine whether different self-discrepancies were associated with the two disorders. In Part 1, it was shown that the depressives possessed the greatest discrepancy between their actual and ideal/own self-states, whereas the social phobics possessed the greatest discrepancy between their actual and ought/other self-states. In a later, ostensibly unrelated study, Ss responded verbally to questions about other people while their mood changes, skin conductance responses, and verbalizations were recorded. The questions included attributes from the S's ideal and ought self-states that were mismatches with attributes from his or her actual self, as well as mismatch attributes from other Ss. Priming with self-referential mismatches induced momentary syndromes of dejection or agitation (depending on the type of mismatch). The depressives and social phobics showed the greatest increase in dejection and agitation, respectively, according to their dominant self-discrepancy. Specific cognitive structures may underlie clinical depression and anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal betrayal and cooperation: Effects on self-evaluation in depression.

Assessed the effect of interpersonal betrayal and cooperative social interaction on self-evaluation processes among 54 female undergraduates scored as depressed or nondepressed on the Self-Rating Depression Scale. Depressed Ss who experienced interpersonal betrayal in a prisoner's dilemma game were more critical of their performance on a subsequent task than were nondepressed Ss or depressed Ss who had experienced a cooperative interaction. Depressed Ss in the betrayal condition also behaved more aggressively toward their betraying partner than did nondepressed betrayed Ss. Depressed Ss were more critical of their own personality characteristics than were nondepressed Ss, regardless of condition. Results suggest that some negative cognitive schema among depressed persons may be altered by interpersonal factors, although it is not clear whether such effects are secondary to increases in self-criticism after conflict or to decreases in self-critical tendencies after positive interaction. Researchers are urged to use multiple, diverse measures of self-evaluation in future efforts to study variability in self-appraisal. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and the response of others: A re-evaluation.

Used a methodology similar to that employed by J. C. Coyne (see record 1976-22455-001) to determine whether depressed patients induce negative mood in others and elicit social rejection. 45 female undergraduates conversed for 20 min by telephone with either 15 depressed psychiatric women, 15 nondepressed psychiatric women, or 15 nondepressed women. Depression was assessed by the Self-Rating Depression Scale, and Ss were rated on the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. It was hypothesized that Ss who spoke with depressed Ss would report more negative mood (as assessed by the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List) and less willingness to interact further with their telephone partner than would Ss who spoke with nondepressed Ss. Results show that Ss were able to detect greater sadness and more problems in depressed Ss, although they themselves were not more depressed or more rejecting if they spoke with a depressed S. Present findings did not confirm those of Coyne. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood.

Examined the relationship between ruminative and distracting styles of responding to depressed mood and the duration of mood. 79 Ss kept accounts of their moods and responses to their moods for 30 consecutive days. The majority of Ss (83%) showed consistent styles of responding to depressed mood. Regression analyses suggested that the more ruminative responses Ss engaged in, the longer their periods of depressed mood, even after taking into account the initial severity of the mood. In addition, women were more likely than men to have a ruminative response style and on some measures to have more severe and long-lasting periods of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of induced mood on retrieval of pleasant and unpleasant events from episodic memory.

Examined the effect of depressed mood on the accessibility of memories of past real-life experiences of a pleasant or unpleasant nature. By means of a mood induction procedure, 30 students (mean age 19.2 yrs) were made happy on one occasion and depressed on another. The 2 mood states differed significantly on self-report, speech-rate, and recall-latency measures. Stimulus words to which Ss had to associate past pleasant or unpleasant experiences were presented in each mood condition, and latency of retrieval was measured. Time to retrieve pleasant memories, relative to time to retrieve unpleasant memories, was significantly longer when Ss were depressed than when they were happy, suggesting a differential effect of mood on the accessibility of these 2 types of memory. Results are considered in relation to state-dependent learning and activation of memories, and their implications for models and treatment of depression are discussed. It is suggested that cognitive models of depression need to be extended to include a reciprocal relation between thought content and depressed mood. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of depressed mood on eating among obese and nonobese dieting and nondieting persons.

Induced a depressed or nondepressed mood in obese and nonobese dieters and nondieters (18 male and 38 female undergraduates). Ss were administered a battery of measures, including the Beck Depression Inventory and Depression Adjective Check List. As predicted, dieters ate more when depressed than when nondepressed, and nondieters ate less when depressed than when nondepressed. That is, both groups reversed their typical eating patterns when depressed. Also as predicted, among depressed Ss, dieters ate more than nondieters; among nondepressed Ss dieters ate less that nondieters. This pattern of results was found for both obese and nonobese Ss. Dieting habits were highlighted as a more salient variable than obesity in predicting eating responses to depressed mood. Findings are discussed with respect to the psychosomatic theory of obesity, the stimulus-binding theory of obesity, previous investigations of clinical depression, and the theory of restrained eating. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Body image, physical attractiveness, and depression.

224 17–63 yr olds completed measures of self-perceived physical attractiveness and depression, and static full-body videotapes of Ss were assessed by objective raters, to investigate the relationship between Ss' body image, rated physical attractiveness, and depression. Measures included the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), a body parts satisfaction scale, and a self-labeling depression scale. Ss were classified as depressed (n?=?35) or nondepressed (n?=?42) on the basis of conjunctive criteria of self-labeling and extreme groups on the CES-D. It was hypothesized that (1) depressed Ss would report being less satisfied with their body parts and physical appearance and would regard themselves as less physically attractive than would nondepressed Ss, (2) objective raters would perceive depressed Ss as less physically attractive than nondepressed Ss, and (3) depressed Ss would distort their degree of physical attractiveness and perceive themselves to be less attractive than objective raters regarded them. Results indicate that, as hypothesized, depressed Ss were less satisfied with their bodies and saw themselves as less physically attractive than nondepressed Ss. These groups did not differ with respect to observer-rated physical attractiveness. Support was obtained for A. T. Beck's (1973, 1976) cognitive hypothesis that depressed persons negatively distort their body images; however, results also indicate substantial positive distortion among nondepressed Ss. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive distortion and cognitive errors in depressed psychiatric and low back pain patients.

Measured the tendency to make cognitive errors in 18 depressed psychiatric patients, 19 depressed low back pain (LBP) patients, 29 nondepressed LBP patients, and 23 nondepressed persons without LBP. Ss were administered 2 cognitive error questionnaires that focused in either general or LBP-related life experiences. These were designed to measure general cognitive distortion as well as 4 empirically derived dysphoric cognitive errors (catastrophizing, overgeneralization, personalization, and selective abstraction). Results indicate that all cognitive errors were endorsed significantly more strongly by depressed Ss with or without LBP. Although depressed LBP Ss made cognitive errors in interpreting many general experiences, they endorsed 3 out of 4 errors focused on LBP experiences significantly more strongly than depressed nonpain Ss. Findings suggest that depression in LBP patients is a function of both LBP and cognitive errors. Thus, cognitive therapy designed to correct cognitive errors may alleviate depression in LBP patients despite the persistence of pain. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Manipulation of thought content as a determinant of mood and corrugator electromyographic activity in depressed patients.

In 5 single-S experiments, depressed mood and corrugator EMG were measured while 5 female depressed psychiatric hospital day-clinic patients thought happy and unhappy thoughts. Results show that mood was significantly more depressed after unhappy thoughts for all Ss. During the 2nd half of the thought periods, corrugator EMG was higher in the unhappy condition than in the happy condition for all Ss, significantly so for all but one. Significant positive correlations between depressed mood and corrugator EMG were obtained in all Ss. Findings are discussed in relation to cognitive theories of depression and to the usefulness of corrugator EMG as an index of depressed mood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of attributions for success on the alleviation of learned helplessness and depression.

Investigated the effects of attributions for success on the alleviation of mood and performance deficits of 104 19–60 yr old clinically depressed inpatients. Ss were assigned to either an acutely depressed group or an improved depressed group that was exposed to a learned helplessness induction procedure. Ss received 80% positive feedback on a task allegedly measuring social intelligence. Concurrently, Ss were exposed to experimental manipulations designed to induce attributions of this experience to 1 of 4 types of causes (internal–general, internal–specific, external–general, external–specific). Following this task, Ss' mood, expectancies, and anagram performance were assessed. Results indicate that helpless and depressed Ss who received the internal attribution manipulations reported less depressed mood than Ss in the external attribution conditions. Similarly, Ss in the general attribution conditions performed better and reported higher expectancies for success on the anagrams than Ss in the specific attribution conditions. Results are supportive of an attribution theory model of learned helplessness and depression. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of induced mood on self-reported life events and perceived and received social support.

Tested the relation between mood (depressed [D], elated [E], or neutral [N]), induced by the Velten (1968) procedure, and college students' responses on a subjectively scored life events questionnaire and measures of perceived and received social support. A manipulation check showed that the mood manipulation was successful. There was a significant mood effect on the number of self-reported negative life events, with E Ss reporting the fewest. However, mood had no significant effect on the number of self-reported positive life events or the rated intensity of negative and positive events. Mood had a significant effect on perceived social support, with D Ss scoring the lowest. Self-report of received social support, however, was not affected by the mood manipulation. The findings challenge the widespread use of life event and perceived social support questionnaires whose independence from a mood-related response bias has not been adequately demonstrated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosocial processes of remission in unipolar depression: Comparing depressed patients with matched community controls.

Investigated the posttreatment phase of unipolar depression by examining the personal and social-environmental characteristics of remitted, partially remitted, and nonremitted depressed patients. The sample was based on a 12-mo follow-up of 424 depressed persons who received psychiatric treatment and a comparable follow-up of demographically matched, nondepressed community controls. 98.8% of the Ss were located at 12-mo follow-up. Analyses were based on 380 Ss. At follow-up, the 138 Ss whose depressive symptoms remitted also reported improvement in other aspects of their adjustment as well as in personal resources such as self-esteem and coping responses to posttreatment stressors. In contrast, the 133 nonremitted Ss continued to report deficits in each of these domains. 124 Ss were categorized as partially remitted. Remitted Ss approached normal levels of life stressors and social resources, whereas nonremitted Ss continued to report heightened stressors and lower levels of support. Risk factors identified at treatment intake were predictive of these Ss' subsequent outcome at follow-up. These findings imply that many successfully treated depressed patients can resume near-normal patterns of functioning and that remission is linked to normalization of personal and social context factors. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some effects of reward upon the social perception and motivation of psychiatric patients varying in depression.

This study is concerned with the effects of task performance upon the affective state and social judgments of depressed individuals. Nondepressed and depressed male psychiatric patients were randomly assigned to an experimentally-induced superior- and inferior-performance condition. Prior to and immediately following the experimental task, Ss rated their own mood and judged photographs of male and female adults on a happiness-sadness continuum. Indices of self-confidence were also obtained. Ss in the superior-performance group in comparison to inferior-performance Ss were more self-confident, rated themselves as happier, and perceived others as happier. Depressive Ss tended to be more affected than nondepressed Ss by task performance when estimating how they would do in a future task; the groups did not differ, however, in performance effects on self-ratings or on judgments of photographs. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of success and failure on depressive cognitions

A cognitive social-learning approach to depression emphasizes biases or distortions in depressed persons' evaluation of information about self, future, and environment. 33 depressed and 34 nondepressed female undergraduates participated in a task that ostensibly assessed therapeutic potential; they received success, failure, or no feedback about their performance on this realistic social interaction task. It was anticipated that depressed women, especially as a function of feedback would respond in characteristic ways that could be construed as depression-enhancing on both self-rating and expectation-of-performance measures. The predictions were largely confirmed. A task developed to assess depressed-distorted responses to stories also revealed significant differences in types of response choices between depressed and nondepressed Ss. Results reinforce attempts to assess not what depressed people are or have , but what they do . (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective and cross-sectional mood reports offer no evidence of a "blue Monday" phenomenon.

Conducted 3 studies, 2 using prospective and 1 using cross-sectional methods, to examine mood variation in married men over the days of the week. In Study 1, 46 Ss (mean age 42 yrs) kept a record of daily events, illnesses, and moods for 90 consecutive days. In Study 2, 58 Ss (mean age 43 yrs) also kept records, but for 112 days; severe dysphoric mood was also measured. 57 Ss in Study 2 also were asked on the telephone about which days of the week were worst and best for their mood. 21 Ss from this study also participated in a study in which they reported on their mood 5 times/day for 2 wks. In Study 3, 616 Ss (aged 18–60 yrs) completed 1 depressed mood scale. Although Ss thought that their mood was lowest on Monday, mood measures collected on a daily basis did not support the belief. Monday's mood was not different than mood on Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, but positive mood was higher and negative mood was lower on the weekend; measures of depressed mood did not vary by day of the week. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-devaluation and depressed mood.

E. Velten's (1968) mood induction procedure (VMIP) has been used in a variety of studies to induce depressed moods. Its effectiveness has been attributed to the self-devaluative nature of its statements, and it has been used as support for cognitive self-evaluation theories of depression. An alternative hypothesis is that suggestions of somatic states characteristic of depression, which are found in nearly half of the VMIP depression statements, account for the effectiveness of the procedure. 60 female college students were randomly assigned to 5 groups: VMIP depression, VMIP elation, VMIP neutral, somatic suggestion, and self-devaluation. The VMIP depression statements were divided into those that suggest somatic states characteristic of depression, (e.g., fatigue and exhaustion) and those that are self-devaluative, (e.g., statements of low self-worth) to form the somatic suggestion and self-devaluation conditions. Somatic suggestion Ss reported more depressed mood than neutral Ss. Somatic suggestion Ss also reported more depressed mood than self-devaluation Ss on several measures. Results support a somatic suggestion hypothesis and offer no support for self-devaluative interpretations of VMIP effects. This limits the support VMIP studies offer to cognitive self-evaluation theories of depression. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressed mood does not explain neuropsychological deficits in HIV-infected persons.

The relationship of depressed mood to cognitive disturbance in HIV infection was examined in a sample of 139 homosexual men. Ss were grouped according to the classification of the Centers for Disease Control: 39 were in Group IV, 62 were in Group II or Group III, and 38 were HIV-negative. Ss completed the Profile of Mood States and 10 neuropsychological tests. Analysis employing a classification approach indicated that, although symptoms of depression and neuropsychological impairment were more common in Ss who were HIV-positive, particularly those classified as Group IV, there were no systematic relationships between depression and neuropsychological impairment. Depressed mood and cognitive disturbance each seem to have unique associations to HIV illness status. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)