An examination of differences between nonclinic and behavior-problem clinic-referred children and their mothers.

Attempted to determine if clinic and nonclinic groups differed according to the following factors: child behavior recorded in the home by an independent observer (O); maternal behavior recorded in the home by an independent O; mother-recorded rates of child behavior; maternal perceptions of child behavior; and presence of maternal depression, anxiety, and marital problems. The study also attempted to determine, by means of a stepwise discriminant analysis, which factor was the best discriminator of clinic–nonclinic status in children. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine which variables were the best predictors in each group of the discriminator variables delineated in the stepwise discriminant analysis. 20 behavior-problem clinic-referred 5-yr-olds and their mothers and 20 nonclinic 5-yr-olds and their mothers served as Ss. Results indicate that the 2 groups differed on child compliance recorded by an independent O and by the mother, maternal perception of child adjustment, and maternal adjustment. Maternal perception of child adjustment was the best discriminator between groups. For the nonclinic group maternal perceptions of child adjustment were best predicted by the child's behavior, whereas for the clinic group maternal perceptions of child adjustment were best predicted by an interaction of child behavior and the mother's personal adjustment. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Side effects of parent counseling on marital satisfaction.

In a study with 27 mothers and their clinic-referred children, mothers were divided into 3 groups based on their pretreatment level of marital satisfaction (Locke Marital Adjustment Test). Child compliance and deviant behavior as measured by independent observers, parent perceptions of child adjustment, and parent marital satisfaction were assessed before treatment, after treatment, and at a 2-mo follow-up. Parent counseling consisted of teaching mothers to reward appropriate behavior and use a time-out procedure for deviant behavior. All groups changed significantly from pre- to posttreatment on the child behavior measures and on parent perceptions of child adjustment. These changes were maintained at follow-up for child compliance and parent perceptions of child adjustment. The group of mothers with low marital satisfaction reported an increase in marital adjustment from pretreatment to posttreatment, but this effect was not maintained at the 2-mo follow-up. Groups with medium or high marital satisfaction reported no change in marital adjustment. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlates of compliance and the rudiments of conscience in two-year-old boys.

Studied compliance in the context of parent–child interaction in 90 2?-yr-old boys by means of naturalistic home observation and interviews. 46 Ss were twins (17 monozygotic and 29 dizygotic). Compliance criteria, including a rating for internalized standards, correlated positively with independence and maturity of speech. Multiple regression analyses of the criteria with parent variables showed that consistently enforced discipline, encouragement of independence, psychological rewards, and maternal play made important contributions to the positive prediction of compliance, whereas physical punishment and use of material rewards were negatively associated with it. A reciprocity system existed between child and parent compliance. Findings underline the importance of cognitive structure and positive social reinforcement as well as of a parental authority role for moral development. (French summary) (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of predictors of maternal perceptions of maladjustment in clinic-referred children.

Investigated whether parental depression or child behavior was the best predictor of maternal perceptions of maladjustment in clinic-referred children. 22 mothers and their children served as Ss. The sample children (mean age 64 mo) were referred for treatment of noncompliant behavior problems; none of the Ss were severely retarded, brain-damaged, or autistic. Maternal perceptions of child maladjustment were measured by 3 scales of the Parent Attitude Test. Maternal depression was determined by the Beck Depression Inventory, while child compliance and child deviant behavior (other than noncompliance) were obtained in home observations collected by independent observers. Results indicate that maternal depression was the best predictor of maternal perception of children. Child behavior did not contribute significantly to the multiple regression analyses. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dyadic parent–child interaction coding system: Standardization and validation.

The Dyadic Parent–Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS) is a comprehensive observational system for conduct problem families. Ss were 22 families referred for treatment of a conduct problem child (2–7 yrs of age) and 22 normal families observed in the laboratory in child-directed and parent-directed interactions. The conduct problem children displayed higher rates of noncompliance than normal children, and their parents were more critical and directive than normal parents. Both the referred child and its sibling exhibited behavior problems in conduct problem families, but the referred child was deviant in a greater variety of situations than the sibling. The DPICS was a reliable, clinically practical, research instrument that correctly classified 94% of families and predicted 61% of the variance in parent report of home behavior problems. The effectiveness of this brief procedure may be attributable to the structure of the clinic observation situations, which varied in degree of parental control. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Treating children with early-onset conduct problems: A comparison of child and parent training interventions.

Families of 97 children with early-onset conduct problems, 4–8 yrs old, were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: a parent training treatment group (PT), a child training group (CT), a combined child and parent training group (CT?+?PT), or a waiting-list control group (CON). Posttreatment assessments indicated that all 3 conditions had resulted in significant improvements in comparison with controls. Comparisons of the 3 treatment conditions indicated that CT and CT?+?PT children showed significant improvements in problem solving as well as conflict management skills, as measured by observations of their interactions with a best friend; differences among treatments on these measures consistently favored the CT over the PT condition. As for parent and child behavior at home, PT and CT?+?PT parents and children had significantly more positive interactions, compared with CT parents and children. One-yr follow-up assessments indicated that all the significant changes noted immediately posttreatment had been maintained over time. Moreover, child conduct problems at home had lessened over time. Analyses of the clinical significance of the results suggested that the combined CT?+?PT condition produced the most significant improvements in child behavior at 1-yr follow-up. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of achievement trajectories: Factors associated with change.

Using data from a longitudinal study of high-risk children (N?=?174), the authors examined deflections from predicted achievement scores on the basis of the discrepancy of observed scores from an established regression line (from first to sixth grade and first grade to age 16 years). Years in special education and socioeconomic status (SES) were related to changes in math achievement between first and sixth grade, whereas SES, child behavior problems, and quality of home environment were related to deflections in achievement from first grade to age 16 years. The environmental factors, quality of home environment, parent involvement in the child's education, and SES were related to improved achievement across time. These results suggest that early school, family, home environment, and child factors are important predictors of academic achievement deflections in late elementary and high school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compliance and its controlling stimuli observed in a natural setting.

Investigated the parental antecedents of overt child compliance by home observations of 136 21/2-yr-old male twins and singletons. Sequential analysis showed that the probability of compliance was highest after parental suggestion and decreased progressively with parental command and reasoning. Among parent actions preceding the verbal control, physical control, negative action, positive action, and neutral action, in this order, facilitated both compliance and noncompliance. Physical control and negative action facilitated noncompliance more than compliance; the reverse held for positive and neutral actions. Findings stress the impact of "power assertion" but apply only to the immediate situation. By contrast, a correlation analysis of long-term effects supported a cognitive view of child rearing. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children with persistent feeding difficulties: An observational analysis of the feeding interactions of problem and non-problem eaters.

Examined the relationship between parent's feeding practices and the feeding behavior of toddlers and preschool-age children with (n?=?19) and without (n?=?26) persistent feeding difficulties. Specifically, patterns of parent–child interaction were assessed during standardized family mealtime observations in the clinic. Parents also kept observational records of their children's mealtime behavior at home and rated the degree of difficulty they experienced in feeding their child during each meal on a daily basis. Observational results showed that feeding-disordered children engaged in higher levels of disruptive mealtime behavior (food refusal, noncompliance, complaining, oppositional behavior, and playing with food) and lower levels of chewing during mealtime. There were several significant age effects, with younger children (under age 3) engaging in more vomiting and less aversive demanding and verbalizations. Parents of feeding-disordered children were more negative and coercive in their feeding practices and engaged in higher levels of aversive instruction giving, aversive prompting, and negative eating-related comments.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavior problems among young children in low-income urban day care centers

The purposes of this study were to describe: (a) the frequency and correlates of behavior problems among a sample of 2- and 3-year-old children from low-income families as seen by their parents and day care teachers, (b) the degree to which parents and teachers agree about the children's behavior problems in their respective contexts, and (c) family characteristics that distinguish toddlers with behavior problems both at home and at day care from the rest of the sample. Parents of 133 toddlers from 10 Chicago day care centers completed measures of child behavior problems, child behavioral intensity, parenting self-efficacy, discipline strategies, and stress. Children's day care teachers also completed a measure of child behavior problems. Parent-reported behavior problems were associated with higher child behavioral intensity, greater parent stress, lower self-efficacy, and discipline strategies characterized by irritability, coercion, and inconsistency. Parent and teacher ratings on child behavior were correlated for boys' behavior problems only. Parents reported more child behavior problems than teachers. Approximately 8% of the children were rated as having behavior problems at home and at day care. Although most of the children are functioning well, many of these parents and toddlers are engaged in highly stressful and coercive relationships.     

Developmental precursors of externalizing behavior: Ages 1 to 3.

Despite previous research indicating that early negative child behavior and the quality of the parent–child relationship are predictive of later externalizing problems, few investigators have attempted to trace these antecedents back to infancy. In a sample of 100 infants (59 boys and 41 girls) from low-income families, it was possible to identify developmental sequences leading from infant persistence and lack of maternal responsiveness to later child disruptive, aggressive child behavior at ages 2 and 3 yrs. Gender differences were found with respect to the range and type of variables that showed continuity in predicting disruptive behavior. For boys, salient predictors of age 2 and age 3 externalizing behavior were maternal unresponsiveness, infant attention-seeking, aggression, and noncompliance, whereas for girls, infant noncompliance was related to both age 3 externalizing and internalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parents' stressful life events and social networks: Relations with parenting and children's competence.

Explored relations between parents' stressful life events and social networks, parent–child interactions, and children's competence in preschool, in 30 normally functioning, 2-parent families. Family interactions were assessed by home observations, observer ratings, and parent self-reports; children's competence in preschool was assessed by teacher ratings. Stress was not strongly linked with parenting, although loss (deaths of relatives and friends) was associated across methods with decreased warmth for both parents. Structural and functional differences emerged for social support from spouse, kin, and friends. Aspects of mothers' and fathers' social networks were associated with the others' parenting. Partial correlation analyses were consistent with the view that effects of parental stress on child behavior were mediated by parent–child interactions, while social networks influenced children directly. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time-out with children. Effects of an explanation and brief parent training on child and parent behaviors

The purpose of the present study was twofold: (a) to determine the effect of an explanation prior to or after time-out on child compliance and on child disruptive behavior during time-out and (b) to determine the effect of brief parent training in time-out on child and parent behaviors. Thirty-two mother-child pairs served as subjects and were assigned to one of the following four groups: control, time-out only, explanation prior to time-out, or explanation following time-out. Each mother-child pair was observed for one session under pretraining, training, and posttraining conditions. The results indicated that time-out significantly increased compliance but the addition of an explanation did not further alter the effectiveness of time-out. Training in the use of time-out decreased the incidence of maternal interruptions but did affect maternal responses that were not trained. Finally, following brief time-out training for noncompliance, the mothers used the procedure only 50% of the time following noncompliance.     

Erratum to Lytton and Zwirner.

Reports an error in the original article by Lytton and Zwirner (Developmental Psychology, 1976[Nov], Vol 11, 769-779). A correction to Table 1 on page 772 is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1976-06839-001.) Investigated the parental antecedents of overt child compliance by home observations of 136 21/2-yr-old male twins and singletons. Sequential analysis showed that the probability of compliance was highest after parental suggestion and decreased progressively with parental command and reasoning. Among parent actions preceding the verbal control, physical control, negative action, positive action, and neutral action, in this order, facilitated both compliance and noncompliance. Physical control and negative action facilitated noncompliance more than compliance; the reverse held for positive and neutral actions. Findings stress the impact of "power assertion" but apply only to the immediate situation. By contrast, a correlation analysis of long-term effects supported a cognitive view of child rearing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The generalization effects of parent training across stimulus settings

Five parents of nonverbal children were trained in two home settings to modify antecedents and consequences to their children's vocalizations. Generalization effects of the parent training on both the parent's and children's behaviors under different stimulus conditions were investigated using multiple-baseline designs. Increases in parent prompting and reinforcing their children's vocalizations generalized only minimally to a new setting in the home where parent training had not occurred. Child increases in vocalizations produced by the parents in the training settings did generalize to this new setting in the home. There was minimal generalization of child vocalizations to a free-play setting at school. In a formal speech session conducted by a behavior specialist at school, only one child showed definite increases in acquisition rate as a function of the parents starting to train the sound at home.     

Effects of age and ritalin dosage on the mother–child interactions of hyperactive children.

Observed interactions between mothers and 54 hyperactive children in 3 age groups (4 yrs to 5 yrs 11 mo, 6 yrs to 7 yrs 11 mo, and 8 yrs to 9 yrs 11 mo) during a drug–placebo evaluation of 2 daily dosages (0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg) of Ritalin (methylphenidate). Results indicate few age or drug effects on social interactions during free play; however, numerous age and drug effects were seen in the task period. With age, children increased their compliance and decreased their negative behavior, and their mothers decreased their levels of control and management. Both doses of methylphenidate increased child compliance equally, but only at the higher dose were significant drug effects found on mothers' behavior: Mothers decreased their control and negative behavior toward children during the high-dose condition. Drug effects on these interactions were not affected by children's ages. It is concluded that although the parent–child interactions of hyperactive children improve with age, methylphenidate produces further improvements in task-related interactions. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomy as competence in 2-year-olds: Maternal correlates of child defiance, compliance, and self-assertion.

95 mothers and their 2-yr-old children participated in a study of maternal control strategies and child autonomy as measured by children's defiant, compliant, and self-assertive behavior. Mothers and children were observed in a laboratory compliance task and at home at dinnertime. Compliance and self-assertion were associated with mothers' use of less powerful methods of control. Defiance loaded on a different factor than either compliance or self-assertion and was associated with more power-assertive control strategies. In situations in which the child had said "no" to the mother, maternal negative control was more likely than any other control strategy to elicit defiance in both settings. The strategy of combining control with guidance was the most likely to elicit compliance and the least likely to elicit defiance in both settings. These associations are discussed in terms of reciprocity and power sharing in relationships and their congruence with D. Baumrind's (1973) pattern of authoritative parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detection of major and minor depression in children and adolescents: evaluation of the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire

The detection of major and minor depression in children and adolescents was evaluated in an outpatient sample of 113 children employing the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (both child and parent versions) and the K-SADS interview. Differences between depressed and nondepressed groups, those with major or minor depression, and depressed children compared with those comorbid for anxiety, were examined. Our findings support the validity of the MFQ as a screening instrument for major and minor depression in a population with a high proportion of depressed cases. High agreement between parent and child ratings was found, with cognitive items being the best predictors of depression.     

Five-year follow-up of family-based behavioral treatments for childhood obesity.

This article presents the 5-year outcome of family-based behavioral treatment of obesity for 6- to 12-year-old children in 162 families across 4 treatment outcome studies. Results suggest that treatments that use (a) conjoint targeting and reinforcement of child and parent behavior or (b) reciprocal targeting and reinforcement of children and parents are associated with the best child outcomes. Predictors of child success include self-monitoring, changing eating behavior, praise, and change in parent percent overweight. Parental outcome is predicted by self-monitoring weight, baseline parent percent overweight, and participation in fewer subsequent weight control programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parents' child-rearing style and child's sociometric status.

Examined relationships between parents' childrearing style, the child's prosocial behavior, and the child's sociometric status. The sample consisted of 112 children (6–11 yrs of age) and both their parents. Parental behavior in the interaction with the child was observed at home when parents and child worked together in 2 structured tasks. Factor analyses of parental behavior revealed that 2 factors, Authoritative/Democratic and Authoritarian/Restrictive, can be found in the subsamples of mothers and fathers. These 2 dimensions of maternal and paternal behavior appeared to be predictive of both the child's prosocial behavior and sociometric status. Results are discussed in terms of the possible link between parent and peer systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)