A study on micro-mechanical deformation behaviour of heat-treated 20MnMoNi55 steel

Several heat treatment procedures are designed considering critical temperatures of phase transformation evaluated through dilatometric testing of 20MnMoNi55 steel to transform low carbon bainitic as-received material into ferrite-martensite dual-phase steels consisting of varied martensite fractions. A thorough metallographic study correlated with the micro-hardness of constituent phases ensures morphological characteristics along with its fractional variations in as-received and dual-phase steels. The impact of fractional variation in constituent phases on the uniaxial monotonic deformation characteristics of dual-phase steels has been observed with a correlation study between experimental tensile and finite element simulated results. Therefore, a physical-based model with a 2-dimensional representative volume element has been established, addressing actual morphological characteristics obtained from metallographic studies. Moreover, the constitutive flow behaviours of ferrite and martensite are also derived from the dislocation-based hardening model to address the actual deformation phenomenon. Finally, an inhomogeneous deformation behaviour among constituent phases and localization of plastic strain in ferrite matrix has been observed with von-Mises stress, and equivalent plastic strain distribution through finite element simulated results. This phenomenon is again confirmed with kernel average misorientation mapping and geometrically necessary dislocation density evaluation through electron backscattered diffraction of tensile samples subjected to different degrees of plastic strain.     

The role of Cu and Al addition on the microstructure and fracture characteristics in the simulated coarse-grained heat-affected zone of high-strength low-alloy steels with superior toughness

The effects of Cu and Al addition on the microstructure and fracture in the coarse-grained heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) of high-strength low-alloy steels with superior toughness were studied and compared with the X70 pipeline base steel counterpart. The microstructure in base steel was dominated by a small fraction of acicular ferrite and predominantly bainite. However, acicular ferrite microstructure was obtained in Cu-bearing steel, which nucleated on complex oxide with outer layer of MnS and CuS because of Cu addition. The microstructure in Al-bearing steel consisted of bainite with ultrafine martensite–austenite constituent, which was refined by Al addition. CGHAZ in Cu-bearing and Al-bearing steels had superior impact toughness and ductile fracture, which were attributed to acicular ferrite and ultrafine martensite–austenite constituent, respectively.     

Real microstructure based micromechanical model to simulate microstructural level deformation behavior and failure initiation in DP 590 steel

Dual phase (DP) steels having a microstructure consists of a ferrite matrix, in which particles of martensite are dispersed, have received a great deal of attention due to their useful combination of high strength, high work hardening rate and ductility. In the present work, a microstructure based micromechanical model is developed to capture the deformation behavior, plastic strain localization and plastic instability of DP 590 steel. A microstructure based approach by means of representative volume element (RVE) is employed for this purpose. Dislocation based model is implemented to predict the flow behavior of the single phases. Plastic strain localization which arises due to incompatible deformation between the hard martensite and soft ferrite phases is predicted for DP 590 steel. Different failure modes arise from plastic strain localization in DP 590 steel are investigated on the actual microstructure by finite element method.     

A study of local deformation and damage of dual phase steel

Deformation and fracture behavior of Dual Phase (DP) high strength steel were investigated by means of a microstructure based Finite Element (FE) modeling. Representative Volume Elements (RVEs) were applied to consider effects of various microstructure constituents and characteristics. Individual stress–strain curves were provided for ferrite, martensite as well as transformation induced Geometrically Necessary Dislocations (GNDs) taking into account in the RVEs. Principally, the GNDs occurred around phase boundaries during quenching process due to the austenite–martensite transformation. Flow behaviors of individual phases were defined on the basis of dislocation theory and partitioning of local chemical composition. Then, flow curves of the examined DP steel were predicted. Furthermore, the Gurson–Tvergaard–Needleman (GTN) model was used to represent ductile damage evolution in the microstructure. Occurrences of void initiation were characterized and damage parameters for RVE simulations were hence identified. Finally, influences of the GNDs, local stress and strain distributions and interactions between phases on predicted crack initiation in the DP microstructure were discussed and correlated with experimental results.     

冷却模式对热轧双相钢组织及断裂机制的影响

为研究冷却模式对热轧双相钢显微组织及断裂机制的影响,采用两段式(空冷+水冷)、连续式两种冷却方式,得到不同相比例和力学性能的热轧双相钢,轧后取样并在扫描电镜上进行原位拉伸实验.结果表明,两段式冷却模式得到的马氏体呈小岛状,而连续式冷却模式得到的马氏体呈块状,马氏体含量和形貌的不同导致两种冷却方式得到的双相钢力学性能存在差异.原位拉伸过程中,裂纹首先萌生于铁素体与夹杂物界面处,随着变形继续进行,在铁素体与马氏体界面处开始出现裂纹,当变形量进一步增大时,细小岛状马氏体始终不发生断裂,而块状马氏体在颈缩阶段发生断裂.     

450~780 MPa系列双相钢扩孔性能实验

目的避免双相钢在成形过程中经常出现的翻边或扩孔开裂的问题,提高生产效率。方法以几种强度级别为450~780 MPa的双相钢为实验对象,测试材料的单向拉伸和扩孔性能,并从微观组织上分析影响双相钢强度和扩孔性能的因素。结果 450~780 MPa强度级别双相钢的屈服强度随铁素体晶粒尺寸的减小而增加,抗拉强度随马氏体体积分数的增加呈近似线性增加。双相钢的扩孔性能随着材料强度的提高呈下降的趋势。DP500与DP450和DP600相比,抗拉强度(579 MPa)居中,伸长率最高,但由于其马氏体形态和分布的差异,其扩孔性能反而最低。结论双相钢的扩孔性能会受到马氏体的含量、尺寸、形态和分布的影响,与材料强度和伸长率没有必然的关系,当马氏体呈颗粒状均匀分布时,具有更好的扩孔性能。     

Effect of intercritical quenching on microstructure and tensile properties of steels 15 and 15Mn2Nb

The microstructure and tensile properties of steels 15 and 15Mn2Nb after quenching from intercritical (γ + α) temperatures were studied. It was shown that steel 15 has an “island-type” dual-phase structure (ferrite plus martensite) after intercritical quenching, while the steel 15Mn2Nb has the “lamellar” structure with alternatively arranged ferrite and martensite needles. Such a lamellar dual-phase structure obviously has improved strength and ductility and is suggested as one of the effective methods in developing high strength dual-phase steels.     

Mechanical and corrosion behavior of plain low carbon dual-phase steels

Dual-phase steels are being used in automobile industries for last three decades. The mechanical properties of dual-phase steels can be altered by varying its martensite volume fraction. However, the benefits obtained in mechanical properties have to be viewed in light of other properties such as corrosion resistance. In this work, dual-phase steels with different volume fractions of martensite are obtained after thermal processing using different intercritical soaking times. The mechanical properties of dual-phase steels such as Vickers hardness and tensile properties are measured. Corrosion properties are evaluated using potentiodynamic polarization test and immersion test. It was observed that the tensile strength and hardness increased and ductility decreased with increase in martensite volume fraction. The corrosion rate for dual-phase steels is found to be lower than that for subcritically heat treated ferrite–pearlite steel. The higher corrosion resistance of dual-phase steels is explained on the basis of microstructural features.     

Improved mechanical properties of V-microalloyed dual phase steel by enhancing martensite deformability

A good combination of ultimate tensile strength(UTS)up to 1365 MPa and total strain to failure(StF)to 15.5％has been achieved due to deformable martensite in the invented vanadium-microalloyed dual-phase(DP)steel,which was manufactured by two-stage annealing of cold rolled steel strip.The employed extensive characterizations revealed that the ductile martensitic phase in this DP steel differ-entiated from ordinarily low-carbon martensitic lath in both morphology and lattice structure.Complex coherent orientation relationships between ferrite,reverse austenite,martensitic phase and vanadium carbide(VC)do exist,leading to a new martensitic transformation mechanism and resultant dual-phase microstructure.Besides,a detailed characterization including essential phase transformation analysis in combination with in situ TEM observation,shows that,all the essential processing including recrystal-lization,reverse austenitic and martensitic transformation,in debt to the particular effects of VC,can be recognized as phase transformations with higher thermodynamic driving force and higher kinetic energy barrier as compared to previously common processing,which actually changes the microstructure and,indirectly leads to higher strength and higher ductility.This synergy of thermodynamics and kinetics can be generalized to improve mechanical properties of present steels.     

Influence of ferrite-martensite microstructural morphology on the low cycle fatigue of a dual-phase steel

A CMnSi dual-phase steel has been heat-treated to yield three different microstructures — a dispersion of martensite in fine-grained ferrite (Type I), a continuous network of martensite around ferrite grains (Type II) and martensite islands encapsulated in a ferrite matrix (Type III) — and low cycle fatigue tests have been conducted. All three conditions have been found to exhibit cyclic hardening. The lower hardening in the Type I microstructure and its cyclic softening at lower strains are attributed to a more uniform initial distribution of dislocations because of the dispersion of the martensite. The Type I microstructure displays the best fatigue performance and is shown to obey the Coffin-Manson law. The deviation of the other two microstructures from this law is shown to be due to a transition from a ductile mode of fracture at lower strains to a brittle type of fracture at higher strains.     

Tensile properties and inhomogeneous deformation of ferrite-martensite dual-phase steels

The tensile properties and inhomogeneous deformation of coarse ferrite-martensite dual-phase steels containing 17–50% martensite were analysed. The stress of dual-phase steels at equal strain increased with increasing volume fraction of martensite, f, but the rate of increase was reduced after f=0.3. The strain hardening rate was dependent on f at small strains ( 0.03), however, it became independent of f at larger strains. It was found that the deformation of the dual-phase steels divided into three different stages when f was less than about 0.3. The concurrent in situ stress-strain states of ferrite, martensite and their composite, and the stress ratios and strain ratios between ferrite and martensite were evaluated by means of a new stress and strain partition theory. The martensite phase deformed plastically after the uniform strain for f < 0.25, while it was plastic before the uniform strain for f > 0.25. The theoretical analyses for inhomogeneous deformation implied that the volume-fraction dependence of the stress and the characteristics of the strain-hardening rate were influenced by the plastic deformation of martensite. Further, the in situ stress-strain curves of ferrite and martensite and the internal stresses at respective phases were calculated from the partitioned stresses and strains.     

Improvement of mechanical properties in a dual-phase ferrite–martensite AISI4140 steel under tough-strong ferrite formation

This paper has been concerned to investigate in details the mechanical properties of AISI4140 heat treatable steel under ferrite–martensite dual-phase (DP) microstructures in conjunction with that of conventional quench-tempered (CQT) full martensitic condition. For this purpose, a wide variety of ferrite–martensite DP samples containing different volume fractions of ferrite and martensite microphases have been developed using step quenching heat treatment processes at 600 °C for 20–55 s holding times with the subsequent hot oil quenching after being austenitized at 860 °C for 60 min in the same situation as to the CQT condition. The finalized tempering heat treatment has been carried out at 600 °C for 30 min for both of direct quenched full martensitic and DP samples in order to optimize the strength–ductility combination. Light and electron microscopes have been used in conjunction with mechanical tests to assess the structure–property relationships in the DP and CQT heat treated samples. The experimental results indicate that the DP microstructures consisting about 7% volume fraction of fine grain boundary ferrite in the vicinity of martensite are associated with excellent mechanical properties in comparison to that of CQT condition. These observations are rationalized in terms of higher carbon concentration of the remaining metastable austenite leading to the harder martensite formation on the subsequent hot oil quenching, and so developing much harder ferrite grains as a consequence of more constraints induced in the ferrite grains during martensitic phase transformation in the remaining austenite adjacent to the ferrite area. The higher martensite volume fraction in the vicinity of thin continuous grain boundary ferrite network has been associated with the harder ferrite formation, causing higher work hardening behavior in the short time treated DP samples. Moreover, it has been found that in order to optimize the mechanical properties of ferrite–martensite DP samples, two independently parameters should be simultaneously controlled: one is the ferrite volume fraction and the other is ferrite morphology.     

A study on fatigue crack growth in dual phase martensitic steel in air environment

Dual phase (DP) steel was intercritically annealed at different temperatures from fully martensitic state to achieve martensite plus ferrite, microstructures with martensite contents in the range of 32 to 76%. Fatigue crack growth (FCG) and fracture toughness tests were carried out as per ASTM standards E 647 and E 399, respectively to evaluate the potential of DP steels. The crack growth rates (da/dN) at different stress intensity ranges (ΔK) were determined to obtain the threshold value of stress intensity range (ΔK_th). Crack path morphology was studied to determine the influence of microstructure on crack growth characteristics. After the examination of crack tortuosity, the compact tension (CT) specimens were pulled in static mode to determine fracture toughness values. FCG rates decreased and threshold values increased with increase in vol.% martensite in the DP steel. This is attributed to the lower carbon content in the martensite formed at higher intercritical annealing (ICA) temperatures, causing retardation of crack growth rate by crack tip blunting and/or deflection. Roughness induced crack closure was also found to contribute to the improved crack growth resistance at higher levels of martensite content. Scanning electron fractography of DP steel in the near threshold region revealed transgranular cleavage fracture with secondary cracking. Results indicate the possibility that the DP steels may be treated to obtain an excellent combination of strength and fatigue properties.     

Effects of morphology and strength of martensite on cyclic deformation behaviour in dual-phase steels

Abstract

Tension–compression cyclic deformation behaviour in dual-phase steels has been studied. Three different ferrite (α)–martensite (α′) microstructures, i.e. isolated α′-colonies dispersed in α-matrix (I), continuous α′ (C), and laminated α–α′ (L), were prepared by appropriate heat treatments, keeping the α′ volume fraction at ~0·3. The work hardening and the Bauschinger effect are found to be greater in microstructure C or L than in I when they are compared at an arbitrary forward (tension) prestrain level. An increase in the hardness of α′ enhances the Bauschinger effect and then narrows the stress–strain hysteresis loop. The stress evolved as a result of the Bauschinger stress (defined as the difference between forward prestress and backward (compression) 0·1% proof stress) is found to be almost independent of microstructure and hardness when it is compared at an arbitrarily fixed prestress level. The slip lines are very fine and relatively straight in microstructure C, but wavy in microstructure I. These findings are discussed from the standpoints of the accumulation of the average internal stress resulting from inhomogeneous plastic flow between two constituent phases and the plastic relaxation.

MST/382     

Microstructural influence on the electrochemical corrosion behaviour of dual-phase steels in 3.5% NaCl solution

Galvanostatic corrosion behavior of five different dual-phase (DP) steels with varying morphologies and martensite content has been assessed in comparison to a ferrite–pearlite steel in 3.5% NaCl solution. It has been observed that both the amount of martensite and the morphology of the phase constituents have definite influence on the corrosion behaviour of DP steel. Higher corrosion tendency has been observed with increased amount of martensite and increased refinement of phase constituents.     

EBSD study of micromechanisms involved in high deformation ability of DP steels

Notched and un-notched tensile specimens of fine grained commercial DP780 steel were deformed in uniaxial tension until fracture. Micro-texture analysis was performed by using an FE-SEM equipped with an EBSD detector and the data were analyzed to quantify orientation gradients within the microstructure of the deformed specimens in terms of Image Quality, Inverse Pole Figure and Taylor Factor map. High deformation ability of DP steels was found to be mostly due to such mechanisms as grain rotation, void creation and evolution, substructure formation within the ferrite grains and the highly plastic stretching of martensite during the deformation process. The true strain of martensite was measured up to 64% and 74% for the un-notched and notched specimens, respectively.     

Microstructures and mechanical properties of dual phase steel produced by laboratory simulated strip casting

Conventional dual phase (DP) steel (0.08C–0.81Si–1.47Mn–0.03Al wt.%) was manufactured using simulated strip casting schedule in laboratory. The average grain size of prior austenite was 117 ± 44 μm. The continuous cooling transformation diagram was obtained. The microstructures having polygonal ferrite in the range of 40–90%, martensite with small amount of bainite and Widmanstätten ferrite were observed, leading to an ultimate tensile strength in the range of 461–623 MPa and a corresponding total elongation in the range of 0.31–0.10. All samples exhibited three strain hardening stages. The predominant fracture mode of the studied steel was ductile, with the presence of some isolated cleavage facets, the number of which increased with an increase in martensite fraction. Compared to those of hot rolled DP steels, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength are lower due to large ferrite grain size, coarse martensite area and Widmanstätten ferrite.     

Influence of martensite carbon content on the cyclic properties of dual-phase steel

A series of Fe---Mn---C alloys was quenched from 760° and 820°C. This treatment produced dual-phase microstructures in which the carbon contents of the martensite and ferrite phases were held constant while the percent martensite varied. The monotomic and cyclic properties of these steels were determined and the major influence on mechanical properties was found to be the percentage of martensite; both monotonic and cyclic stress levels increase linearly with martensite content. Carbon content of the phases also appears to play a role, particularly for cyclic properties. At constant martensite contents higher carbon levels result in better fatigue properties. Thus dual-phase steels with a higher alloy content (therefore able to be more slowly cooled resulting in higher carbon bearing martensite) may be preferable for cyclic applications.     

Role of recrystallization and pearlite dissolution in industrial processing of DP590 steels

Dual-phase (DP) steels derive their perfect blend of properties via the hard second phase, namely martensite or bainite in a softer ferrite matrix. The key to refine the mechanical properties of DP steels rests on optimizing and tailoring the distribution and size of the hard second phase present in the ferrite matrix. There can be several combinations of processing routes depending on the governing mechanisms, such as recrystallization, pearlite dissolution, phase transformation, etc., which can affect the morphology and distribution of martensite phase present in DP microstructures. All these mechanisms are invoked at various stages of annealing process cycle. In the present study, experimental simulation of various annealing parameters was carried out on a cold-rolled steel using a custom designed annealing simulator. The evolution of microstructure was studied by field emission scanning electron microscope. The evolving microstructures were correlated with governing mechanisms of recrystallization, pearlite dissolution, and phase transformation. Through these simulations, it was possible to tailor the microstructure and consequently improve the tensile properties of the DP steel.