由单一走向多样：平原农业区生物多样性 保护的规划途径——以辽宁省黑山县为例

平原农业区的生产和土地利用方式严重影响区域的生物多样性,利用融合多学科的景观空间规划构建有效的评价方法和格局优化模式以实现多样化的生境保护和恢复,提升生物多样性具有重要的作用。以辽宁省黑山县为例,首先梳理了平原农业区对于生物多样性威胁的机制和研究的框架;其次识别平原农业区的特殊生境类型,使用景观格局指数和In VEST模型的生境质量评价构建多尺度生境质量评价机制;同时使用基于图论和电路理论的LinkageMapper软件,识别和分级空间中的重要生态源地、潜在廊道及廊道上的关键夹点区域。结果显示,农业景观中空间异质性和连接性影响生物多样性;研究区有主要生境23类,整体生境质量较差,农田面积较大是造成该问题的主要原因;识别出核心斑块33个,重要廊道34条,通过与卫星图比照,廊道位置与线性生境重合;关键夹点区域位于靠近农村居民点的自然生境上,故营造人类干扰与生态平衡农村居住区是空间规划的重点;同时根据以上研究提出了多尺度的空间规划途径,为平原农业区生境优化和生物多样性保护提供了一定的理论参考。     

以自然为取向的旅游设施作为促进生物多样性保护的策略手段 以欧洲西南部萨尔加多湿地为例

人类的福祉有赖于自然生态系统所提供的大量的生态系统服务。为此欧盟已经建立了一个名为＂自然2000＂的大型生态保护区网络;然而,在经历了一段时期的城市扩张和土地使用的集约化后,欧洲的生物多样性已经迅速减少,大多数物种和栖息地的利益仍未处于一个良好的保护状态。在过去的几十年里,可持续旅游概念的提出和以自然为取向的自然型旅游业的出现,作为一项重要的生态系统服务,为保护自然环境和发展当地经济提供了大量的支持。并且这些支持的大部分已经集中投入在了保护区域,但是要看到,在这里我们是假设以自然为取向的旅游业对于尚未被正式保护的荒野环境而言,是一项具有高潜力的保护策略和可持续发展的基础。尤其是在具有多种且相互竞争用途的景观中,它能在自然修复、生物多样性保护和人类活动之间取得一种保证。为了验证这一假设,以位于阿尔加维地区（欧洲西南部）一处与沼泽地带相连的湿地作为研究案例。该案例研究涉及一处重要的但还未处于任何正式保护状态的滨海野生环境,并且20世纪末,在此环境中,几项限制条件促进了创造性的管理模式。描述了在21世纪初,设计并执行一项以自然为取向的旅游设施的过程。这一研究成果以景观生态学的概念框架以及一处涉及修复和保护的环境为支撑。同时文章还探讨了这种基于自然的旅游设施在促进可持续管理和自然保护策略方面的潜在意义。     

Modeling urban land development as a continuum to address fine-grained habitat heterogeneity

Natural landscapes are increasingly subjected to impacts associated with urbanization, resulting in loss and degradation of native ecosystems and biodiversity. Traditional classification approaches to the characterization of urbanization may prove inadequate in some human-modified landscapes where complex and unique combinations of conditions can make classification and delineation of patches difficult. We describe a model that depicts existing human development as a fine-grained continuous variable using parcel-based land use data and transportation networks. We derived percent development values across our 88 000-ha study area, the Lake Tahoe basin. Our modeled values were highly correlated with observed levels of development based on high-resolution aerial photographs. We demonstrate how our model of development can be used to address practical conservation questions by evaluating the potential effects of highly interspersed urban land development and wildland conditions on the amount and availability of habitat suitable for the resident California spotted owl (Strix occidentalis occidentalis) at two points in time (current and 40 years in the future). The results indicated that assessments not accounting for the indirect effects of development may overestimate the amount of available habitat by 19–83%. Portraying urbanization as a continuum across entire landscapes captured fine-grained landscape complexity at scales that were relevant to the habitat needs and environmental sensitivities of a species of conservation interest. This relatively simple approach should aid ecologists and landscape planners in evaluating the current or future effects of urbanization on ecological elements and processes.     

Identifying regional landscapes for conservation planning: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The application of landscape ecology in conservation biology has rarely occurred in the context of defined landscapes. Conservation planning has focussed on representation of species diversity patterns and assumed that ecosystems, landscapes and their associated processes will be equally protected. The long-term persistence of biodiversity in the face of land transformations and global change requires the representation and retention of all elements of biodiversity. This biodiversity includes landscapes, and the landscape structure and processes that maintain patterns of biodiversity. We developed a method of classifying landscapes for the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The process entailed the use of 1 km² grid data from climate and terrain databases. Principal components analysis coupled with a cluster classification method and spatial overlay techniques were used to identify two hierarchical levels of landscapes. Validation analysis showed that landscapes are identifiable with a classification accuracy of 86.8%. The derived landscapes can be combined separately with data on vegetation and soil to describe landscape ecosystems that potentially differ in species composition, successional dynamics, and potential productivity. The surrogate use of the landscapes in conjunction with other strategic data, for the identification of priority conservation areas, is demonstrated.     

Ecological and social evaluation of landscape in a rural area with terraced paddies in southwestern Japan

Since the 1960s, improving socio-economic conditions in rural Japan have led to the rise in man-made or man-shaped landscapes, which has in turn resulted in formerly abundant species becoming endangered. In order to conserve biodiversity in rural areas, former agricultural landscapes must be conserved. The problem is that ecologically appropriate landscapes are not always compatible with the needs of local residents or land owners. Prior to carrying out any particular conservation measures, regional landscape management must consider both ecological and social approaches and present acceptable approach-specific management goals in an open and transparent manner. This study, undertaken in the Ohaga district of southwestern Japan, a typical rural area with terraced paddy fields, sought to develop a framework for evaluating regional resources from a landscape ecology perspective. Monitoring the temporal change of landscape structures and vegetation revealed the presence of habitats, such as the pine forest and grasslands bordering the rice paddies, which harbour specific plant species or populations, some now endangered. From a social standpoint, questionnaires revealed that local inhabitants wanted landscape management options which would conserve the pine forest, paddy fields and levee grasslands. Local farmers thought that the landscape should be used and managed as a rural park, rather than for agricultural purposes. These desirable landscape element types can serve as targets for conservation, but ultimately a new system of agricultural management must be developed to sustain the rural landscape.     

Integrating wetlands into planned landscapes

The commonly held perspective of wetland habitats in planned landscapes has shifted from areas requiring drainage and fill to valuable habitat providing benefits to society. This shift in perspective has given rise to federal, state and local wetland protection efforts, but planners, landscape architects and engineers have yet to integrate wetland habitats into communities and planned landscapes. In fact, many of the practices employed by land planners to address wetland protection are all too often creating ecological traps that do more harm than good. Complicating the integration of wetland habitats into communities is the public preference for certain types of natural landscapes. In response to this stated aesthetic preference, landscape management practices intended to improve the appearance of wetland habitats actually destroy valuable breeding sites, and food and cover for numerous birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians. With careful planning, design, implementation, and public education, wetland habitats can be fully integrated into planned landscapes without destroying valuable benefits provided by wetland ecosystems.     

哈尔滨市高校校园绿地自生植物多样性及其在异质生境中的分布特征

自生植物是城市生物的重要组成部分,是城市生态系统可持续发展的重要保障。运用均匀网格布样法,结合典型生境取样法,调查并分析了哈尔滨10所高校校园绿地自生植物的物种多样性及其生境特征。结果表明：1)共记录到自生植物146种,隶属于42科108属;2)教学科研与行政办公区、学生生活区以及微生境类型中的乔-草生境、行道树池绿地生境、灌草生境及人工草坪生境是自生植物的主要生存空间;3)生活史周期较短和可塑性高的世界广布性自生植物对高频度和高强度的人为干扰具有很强的适应性。研究成果将为探索城市生物多样性保护与维持策略提供依据,也为低成本校园植物景观建设与养护、自生植物生境设计与营造及生物多样性保护与维持提供参考。     

Biodiversity concepts and urban ecosystems

The association of biodiversity and urban ecosystems has usually concerned the impact of urbanization on biodiversity. However, biodiversity concepts can easily be applied to the urban ecosystem itself. As more and more people live in cities, restoration, preservation and enhancement of biodiversity in urban areas become important. Concepts related to biodiversity management such as scale, hierarchy, species identity, species values, fragmentation, global approaches can be used to manage urban biodiversity. Application of these concepts in such artificial ecosystems may yield important insights for the management of natural ecosystems. Birds are highly visible and quite sensitive to changes in habitat structure and composition. Bird species richness in urban ecosystems is influenced both by local and landscape characteristics and a multi-scale approach is essential to its proper management. People–wildlife conflicts are an integral component of wildlife management in urban ecosystems and must be addressed. Enhancement of biodiversity in urban ecosystems can have a positive impact on the quality of life and education of urban dwellers and thus facilitate the preservation of biodiversity in natural ecosystems.     

From Soviet to Post-Soviet with Transformation of the Fragmented Urban Landscape: The Case of Garage Areas in Estonia

Demands on land use in heavily populated landscapes create mosaic structures where semi-natural habitat patches are generally small and dominated by edges. Small patches are also more exposed and thus more vulnerable to adverse weather and potential effects of climate change. These conditions may be less problematic for generalist species than for specialists. Using insectivorous woodland birds (great tits and blue tits) as an example, we demonstrate that even generalists suffer reduced breeding success (in particular, rearing fewer and poorer-quality young) and increased parental costs (daily energy expenditure) when living in such highly modified secondary habitats (small woods, parks, farmland). Within-habitat heterogeneity (using the example of Monks Wood NNR) is generally associated with greater species diversity, but to benefit from heterogeneity at a landscape scale may require both high mobility and the ability to thrive in small habitat patches. Modern landscapes, dominated by small, modified and scattered habitat patches, may fail to provide specialists, especially sedentary ones, with access to sufficient quantity and quality of resources, while simultaneously increasing the potential for competition from generalists.     

基于InVEST-MCR复合模型的城市 绿色空间生境网络格局构建研究

城市化进程的不断加快影响了城市绿色空间的生境质量,城市生物多样性受到极大威胁。构建城市范围内的多物种综合生境网络能够整合现有的城市绿色空间格局,促进生物多样性保护与发育。以北京市丰台区为例,面向生物多样性保护与城市绿色空间发展提出了基于In VEST-MCR复合模型的城市绿色空间生境网络格局构建方法体系:即以生境类型为导向选取区域内生物多样性保护的焦点物种,通过大数据选取焦点物种的栖息源地,基于In VEST模型生境质量模块选取潜在栖息地(汇)并生成生境网络构建阻力面,采用最小累计阻力模型(MCR)构建丰台区城市绿色空间生境网络。研究结果明确了丰台区的生境质量现状与未来生境网络发展脉络,为城市绿色空间生境网络构建提供了新方法,为丰台区绿地空间格局规划与生物多样性保护提供了参考框架。     

Using Landscape Characteristics for Targeting Habitat Conservation and Restoration: a case study of ancient semi-natural woodland in the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, UK

Ancient semi-natural deciduous woodland is a rare and threatened habitat cited by the European Union's Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Current protection of this endangered habitat in the UK takes the form of site-specific reserve designations but, if the habitat is to be conserved and enhanced, a landscape-scale selective targeting system is required. In the absence of suitable species data, physical attributes of habitat patches are used as surrogate indicators of biodiversity. Using a land-use database held on a geographical information system, values of four abiotic criteria (patch area, patch shape, nearest-neighbour distance and surrounding land use) of 48 ancient semi-natural woodland patches in part of the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty were calculated. In order to validate the findings, three lists of floral and faunal species, indicative of ancient semi-natural woodland, were compiled, and the patches ranked according to their alpha diversity using each list. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were calculated for patch alpha diversity and patch area (0.322 to 0.482), patch shape (0.275 to 0.465) and nearest-neighbour distance ( - 0.092 to - 0.223). Multiple regression indicated that between 15 and 22% of the variation in alpha patch diversity was explained by the abiotic factors. It is suggested that spatial targeting at the landscape scale is a valuable approach to habitat conservation.     

Some examples of different landscape systems and their biodiversity potential

The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED in Rio 1992) presents a main challenge for the development of regional strategies for biodiversity conservation. If it is to be adopted politically, then targets will have to be based on reliable documentation of the biotic ‘ingredients' of the different landscape systems and moreover, targets have to be adapted to the regional socio-economic systems. Landscape systems were delineated which are representative of the sequence of different land use and impact intensities in central Europe. In a first test, these systems were characterized by generally available biological and socio-economic data, in order to identify the conservation performance of the dominant central European landscape systems. The results of this approach will be discussed with respect to restoration needs, preservation measures and development proposals for the different central European landscape systems. It can be shown that special attention for biodiversity conservation in central Europe has to be paid to the urban/suburban landscapes because of their high biological diversity i.e. coverage of important sites for nature conservation and species richness. In addition, the coupling of the floristic data with a scheme of reproduction times for vegetation formations and habitat types, helps to outline different packages of conservation action plans for sustainable regional development.     

Using Landscape Characteristics for Targeting Habitat Conservation and Restoration: A case study of ancient semi-natural woodland in the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty,UK

Ancient semi-natural deciduous woodland is a rare and threatened habitat cited by the European Union's Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Current protection of this endangered habitat in the UK takes the form of site-specific reserve designations but, if the habitat is to be conserved and enhanced, a landscape-scale selective targeting system is required. In the absence of suitable species data, physical attributes of habitat patches are used as surrogate indicators of biodiversity. Using a land-use database held on a geographical information system, values of four abiotic criteria (patch area, patch shape, nearest-neighbour distance and surrounding land use) of 48 ancient semi-natural woodland patches in part of the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty were calculated. In order to validate the findings, three lists of floral and faunal species, indicative of ancient semi-natural woodland, were compiled, and the patches ranked according to their alpha diversity using each list. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were calculated for patch alpha diversity and patch area (0.322 to 0.482), patch shape (0.275 to 0.465) and nearest-neighbour distance ( - 0.092 to - 0.223). Multiple regression indicated that between 15 and 22% of the variation in alpha patch diversity was explained by the abiotic factors. It is suggested that spatial targeting at the landscape scale is a valuable approach to habitat conservation.     

乡村生态景观识别与生境网络优化——以南京市江宁区为例

【目的】三生融合是乡村景观空间的基本格局，识别生态格局、优化生境网络是保护生物多样性、修复乡村生态环境的基本途径。【方法】基于土地覆被类型遥感解译，识别乡村三生空间及生境类型分布；依托MSPA方法识别生态斑块，采用InVEST模型评价斑块的生境质量，并结合三生空间类型提取生态源地；综合运用ArcGIS的栅格计算器及Linkage Mapper工具箱进行生态廊道、夹点、障碍点的识别。【结果】进一步整合出江宁区四片区-五组团-多廊道-多节点的多层级复合式生境网络格局，将其作为构建区域乡村生态本底的基础。【结论】在尊重三生空间融合的前提下，基于定量及空间定位与定性研究，初步形成乡村生境优化的路径。     

基于生境网络构建优化的生物多样性保护 规划途径研究

城市绿色空间是承载生物多样性的关键,以其为基 础构建生境网络有助于整合破碎绿地斑块,促进物种交流与迁 徙,为生物多样性保护提供基础。现有生境网络构建过程中存 在依赖单一模型、忽略区域实际物种情况、网络构建的工作路 径尚未统一、输出成果难以与上位规划衔接并在规划层面进行 实践应用等问题。在明确生物多样性保护规划工作内容与目标 的基础上,综合运用生境质量分析、地理探测器、最小累积阻 力模型等模型方法,识别区域生境源地和廊道,并在考虑区域 指示物种的基础上补充重要生境节点,构建面向生物多样性保 护的生境网络,系统优化了“源地识别-廊道模拟-节点提取- 网络构建”的网络构建方法;以对接国土空间规划下的绿地系 统专项规划为目标,将生境网络构建结果通过红线比对、绿地 分类匹配等途径,从空间管控角度提出保护措施,实现与绿地 系统规划的有效衔接,构建统一规范的生物多样性保护规划工 作路径,以通城县为例验证工作路径的可行性,优化面向生物 多样性保护的生境网络构建方法,为县域绿地系统规划与生物 多样性保护规划提供科学依据。     

Landscape memory in abandoned areas—physical and ecological perspectives (Central European mountains case study)

Using the concept of landscape memory we examined the relationship between persistence of anthropogenic landforms and their botanical composition several decades after depopulation of Karpno village (Sudetes Mts), which represents the socio-economic and ecological processes typical for mountainous areas in post-war Central Europe. The research was based on geomorphic and botanical field surveys. Evidence of anthropogenic landscape memory still persists in local land morphology and ecosystem composition, despite the apparent homogeneity of large-scale landscape features. Former human activities continue to affect local site properties, which results in a mosaic of diverse habitats. Plant species composition of secondary ecosystems remains different from both their anthropogenic precursors and surrounding natural communities. Persistent habitat eutrophication slows down competitive exclusion of shade intolerant species in sites overgrown by forest canopy. Observed evidence cannot be explained without knowledge of local history, which is vital for planning development and conservation of bio-cultural landscapes.     

Differential response of selected taxa to landscape context and agricultural intensification

Understanding the dynamics of biodiversity in changing agricultural landscapes is a goal for nature conservation and agricultural policies. Agriculture operates at several spatio-temporal levels from field to landscape, and induces differential response of communities according to their ecological traits. Reactions of several taxa to landscape and agricultural changes was conducted along landscape gradients in northern Brittany (France) gathering 14 sites. Landscapes ranged from fine grained areas, with a large proportion of permanent grasslands, wood and hedgerows, to coarse grained ones dominated by crops. Response of communities were either loss of species along the gradient (as for Diptera Chironomidae and Empididae), replacement (Coleoptera Carabidae) and no change in species composition (small mammals). In this paper, we present why these taxa react in such different ways according to their life history traits, their mobility patterns and to which parameters of landscape structure or agriculture intensification they are sensitive. Density of hedgerow networks, and permeability of individual hedgerows determine the spatial distribution of adults Diptera according to their flying ability. Mean body size of carabid beetles significantly decreases along the gradient of agricultural intensification, small species adapted to disturbance replacing large ones that are characteristic of stable habitats. The same small mammal species are found all along the two gradients, but their relative abundance is linked to the importance of crops versus more stable habitats in the landscape.We concluded that species survival in those fine grained agricultural landscapes depends on processes operating at the site scale and defining habitat quality, and processes operating at the landscape and/or metapopulation scale such as landscape modifications in connectivity and habitat availability.     

城市绿地景观格局对“核心生境”质量的影响探究

城市化进程中自然栖息地的锐减是导致生物多样性缺失的直接原因。当前保留年份较久的残存栖息地可作为"核心生境"在城市生态系统服务功能中发挥重要作用。以韩国首尔特别市为例,基于4期解译后的卫星图像判别城市林地内的"核心生境",并选取22个城市公园作为样本,运用Fragstats工具和InVEST模型分别计算景观格局指数和生境质量指数,模拟了林地生境质量和影响其变化的主导景观格局因子。研究发现:1)毗邻建设用地的林地生境质量指数明显低于城市边缘山区;2)面积对于生境单元值的影响具有尺度差异性,相对于较大尺度样本,中小尺度样本的"核心生境"单元值受面积影响较小;3)样本生境的景观格局对"核心生境"质量的主导影响可概括为绿地形状因子和绿地聚合因子(因子分析解释度为96.022%),且具有显著的线性回归关系。     

Modeling spatially explicit population dynamics of Pterostichus melanarius I11. (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in response to changes in the composition and configuration of agricultural landscapes

The intensification of agricultural practices has induced the local, national and regional extinction of many species and also affected ecosystem services provided by biodiversity such as biological control of agricultural pests. We model the population dynamics of Pterostichus melanarius (Coleoptera: Carabidae), a carabid beetle often used as indicator species of habitat changes, by a joint model that combined a matrix model of population dynamics including local dispersal with an explicit model of the patchy landscape of the polders of the Bay of Mont St. Michel (Brittany, France). We used this model to evaluate the effects of landscape composition and configuration on the spatial population dynamics of this carabid beetle, and also investigated the consequences that different management strategies of the structure and composition of an agricultural landscape can have on its abundance and spatial distribution. The results of this study highlight that semi-habitats (field edges, dykes, hedgerows) usually considered as shelters for wintering play a key role as well for summer recruitment. We find that there is an optimal cluster size of patches for population viability that is induced by the seasonal movement of P. melanarius. However, the effect of increasing the amount of semi-natural habitats patches on the viability of this population critically depend on the spatial arrangement, connectivity and spatial alternation of the network of semi-natural habitats, a feature that should be considered in the conservation and management actions in the landscape context.     

Habitat Suitability and Landscape Structure: A Maximum Entropy Approach in a Mediterranean Area

Species distribution models have recently become important tools in ecological research. Prediction of suitable habitats for threatened and endangered species is essential for the conservation and management of their native habitats. A landscape scale approach is relevant for biodiversity conservation since landscape planning and management are generally conducted at wide spatial scales, focusing on areas with complex landscape configuration as a consequence of human activities. The aims of this study were to test a maximum entropy approach (Maxent) to the development of a niche-based model for species of conservation interest and to relate this model to landscape structure metrics. The results obtained here showed a good predictive power of Maxent for the three target species and highlighted the importance of landscape structure analysis for the detection of patterns of habitat suitability. Moreover, this work stressed that combining classical environmental information with landscape structure in analysing habitat suitability for species of conservation interest may be used to guide conservation efforts and landscape management practices.