Microorganisms in bioaerosol emissions from wastewater treatment plants during summer at a Mediterranean site

Measurements were conducted at a Mediterranean site (latitude 35 degrees 31' north and longitude 24 degrees 03' east) during summer, to study the concentration of microorganisms emitted from a wastewater treatment plant under intensive solar radiation (520-840 W/m2) and at elevated air temperatures (25-31 degrees C). Air samples were taken with the Air Sampler MAS 100 (Merck) at each stage of an activated-sludge wastewater treatment (pretreatment, primary settling tanks, aeration tanks, secondary settling tanks, chlorination, and sludge processors). Cultivation methods based on the viable counts of mesophilic heterotrophic bacteria, as well as of indicator microorganisms of faecal contamination (total and faecal coliforms and enterococci), and fungi were performed. During air sampling, temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity and wind speed were measured. The highest concentrations of airborne microorganisms were observed at the aerated grit removal of wastewater at the pretreatment stage. A gradual decrease of bioaerosol emissions was observed during the advanced wastewater treatment from the pretreatment to the primary, secondary and tertiary treatment (97.4% decrease of mesophilic heterotrophic bacteria, and 100% decrease of total coliforms, faecal coliforms and enterococci), 95.8% decrease of fungi. The concentration of the airborne microorganisms at the secondary and tertiary treatment of the wastewater was lower than in the outdoor control. At the same time, the reduction of the microbial load at the waste sludge processors was 19.7% for the mesophilic heterotrophic bacteria, 99.4% for the total coliforms, and 100% for the faecal coliforms and the enterococci, 84.2% for the fungi. The current study concludes that the intensive solar radiation, together with high ambient temperatures, as well as optimal wastewater treatment are the most important factors for low numbers of microbes in the air.     

Transferable drug resistance in bacteria of coastal canal water and sediment

This study was undertaken to determine the comparative incidence of drug-resistant coliforms and salmonellae in the water and bottom sediments of six coastal canal communities which are used heavily for recreational activities. Of a total of 423 coliforms, 300 fecal coliforms and 100 salmonella isolates examined, 74.9% coliforms, 61.3% fecal coliforms and 71.0% salmonellae were resistant to one or more of the 12 antibiotics tested. Multiple resistance occurred in 48.9% coliforms, 32.7% fecal coliforms and 68.0% salmonella strains. A total of 178 coliforms, 137 fecal coliforms and 51 salmonella isolates were tested for the presence of resistance transfer factors, and 53.9%, 53.3% and 56.9% isolates, respectively, were capable of transferring their resistance patterns to Escherichia coli and/or Salmonella choleraesuis recipient strains. A significantly higher number of drug-resistant bacteria carrying R-factors (R⁺) was found to occur in sediment than in surface water.     

Evaluating the importance of faecal sources in human-impacted waters

Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was used to evaluate the relative contribution of faecal indicators and pathogens when a mixture of human sources impacts a recreational waterbody. The waterbody was assumed to be impacted with a mixture of secondary-treated disinfected municipal wastewater and untreated (or poorly treated) sewage, using Norovirus as the reference pathogen and enterococci as the reference faecal indicator. The contribution made by each source to the total waterbody volume, indicator density, pathogen density, and illness risk was estimated for a number of scenarios that accounted for pathogen and indicator inactivation based on the age of the effluent (source-to-receptor), possible sedimentation of microorganisms, and the addition of a non-pathogenic source of faecal indicators (such as old sediments or an animal population with low occurrence of human-infectious pathogens). The waterbody indicator density was held constant at 35 CFU 100 mL⁻¹ enterococci to compare results across scenarios. For the combinations evaluated, either the untreated sewage or the non-pathogenic source of faecal indicators dominated the recreational waterbody enterococci density assuming a culture method. In contrast, indicator density assayed by qPCR, pathogen density, and bather gastrointestinal illness risks were largely dominated by secondary disinfected municipal wastewater, with untreated sewage being increasingly less important as the faecal indicator load increased from a non-pathogenic source. The results support the use of a calibrated qPCR total enterococci indicator, compared to a culture-based assay, to index infectious human enteric viruses released in treated human wastewater, and illustrate that the source contributing the majority of risk in a mixture may be overlooked when only assessing faecal indicators by a culture-based method.     

Efficiency of removal of coliforms, faecal coliforms and coliphages in the tubli sewage treatment plant, bahrain

Total coliforms, faecal coliforms and coliphages in the raw sewage were detected in high numbers during the months averaging a maximum temperature of 20°C. The secondary and tertiary effluents show a 99–100% removal of the three indicators of faecal pollution. A direct correlation between the faecal coliforms and coliphages suggests that coliphages alone may be used as an indicator for the presence of pathogenic bacteria in contaminated waters.     

某再生水厂混凝/沉淀/过滤工艺的处理效果评估

某再生水厂的供水能力为10×104m3/d,采用混凝、沉淀、过滤工艺,原水为城市污水厂的二级处理出水.结合实际运行数据,分析了该工艺及其各单元对几种主要指标的去除效果.监测结果显示,该工艺对COD、SS、TP具有较好的去除效果,但对TN、BOD5的去除率较低,对此可在前端增加曝气生物滤池等单元加以解决.该研究对于污水再生处理工艺的选择具有指导意义.     

Removal of viruses, parasitic protozoa and microbial indicators in conventional and membrane processes in a wastewater pilot plant

The aim of this study was to investigate variations in the occurrence and removal of enterovirus and norovirus genomes, Giardia cysts, Cryptosporidium oocysts and the most commonly used faecal indicators in a Swedish wastewater pilot plant. Paired samples were taken from the inlet and outlet of each treatment line: tertiary filtration, membrane bioreactor (MBR) and upflow anaerobic sludge blankets (UASB). (Oo)cysts and indicators were enumerated using standard methods and viruses using RT-PCR. Giardia cysts and enteroviruses were constantly detected, mean numbers 10(3.11) cysts and 10(4.0) PCR units L(-1), respectively. Oocysts were found in 5/19 samples, mean number 5 L(-1). Noroviruses were found in 6/7 influent samples, with an average titre of 10(3.28)L(-1), during winter, but only in 2/15 in the rest of the year (mean 200 L(-1)). MBR treatment removed indicators more efficiently than did the other two lines, with 5log removal of E. coli. Human virus genome removal did not differ between the MBR and tertiary treatment line. Microorganism removal in UASB was significantly lower for all the organisms studied. E. coli, enterococci and Cl. perfringens removal was correlated (p<0.05) with enterovirus genome removal, with R-values around 0.4. However, values for removal of indicators were more strongly correlated to each other. Removal of viruses based on enumeration using RT-PCR probably underestimates infectious virion removal.     

Efficacy of reactive mineral-based sorbents for phosphate,bacteria, nitrogen and TOC removal – Column experiment in recirculation batch mode

Two mineral-based materials (Polonite and Sorbulite) intended for filter wells in on-site wastewater treatment were compared in terms of removal of phosphate (PO₄–P), total inorganic nitrogen (TIN), total organic carbon (TOC) and faecal indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli and Enterococci). Using an innovative, recirculating system, septic tank effluent was pumped at a hydraulic loading rate of 3000 L m² d⁻¹ into triplicate bench-scale columns of each material over a 90-day period. The results showed that Polonite performed better with respect to removal of PO₄–P, retaining on average 80% compared with 75% in Sorbulite. This difference was attributed to higher CaO content in Polonite and its faster dissolution. Polonite also performed better in terms of removal of bacteria because of its higher pH value. The total average reduction in E. coli was 60% in Polonite and 45% in Sorbulite, while for Enterococci the corresponding value was 56% in Polonite and 34% in Sorbulite. Sorbulite removed TIN more effectively, with a removal rate of 23%, while Polonite removed 11% of TIN, as well as TOC. Organic matter (measured as TOC) was accumulated in the filter materials but was also released periodically. The results showed that Sorbulite could meet the demand in removing phosphate and nitrogen with reduced microbial release from the wastewater treatment process.     

Faecal contamination of greywater and associated microbial risks

The faecal contamination of greywater in a local treatment system at Viby?sen, north of Stockholm, Sweden was quantified using faecal indicator bacteria and chemical biomarkers. Bacterial indicator densities overestimated the faecal load by 100-1000-fold when compared to chemical biomarkers. Based on measured levels of coprostanol, the faecal load was estimated to be 0.04 g person(-1) day(-1). Prevalence of pathogens in the population and the faecal load were used to form the basis of a screening-level quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) that was undertaken for rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. The different exposure scenarios simulated--direct contact, irrigation of sport fields and groundwater recharge--gave unacceptably high rotavirus risks (0.04 < Pinf < 0.60) despite a low faecal load. The poor reduction of somatic coliphages, which were used as a virus model, in the treatment was one main reason and additional treatment of the greywater is suggested. Somatic coliphages can under extreme circumstances replicate in the wastewater treatment system and thereby underestimate the virus reduction. An alternative QMRA method based on faecal enterococci densities estimated similar risks as for rotavirus. Growth conditions for Salmonella in greywater sediments were also investigated and risk modelling based on replication in the system increased the probability of infection from Salmonella 1000-fold, but it was still lower than the risk of a rotavirus infection.     

城市污水处理厂厂址选择新思维

针对目前城市污水处理厂选址中存在的问题，简要介绍了城市污水处理厂厂址选择的传统思维，并根据21世纪出现的排水系统的定位走向，提出了城市污水处理厂厂址选择的新思维。以成都市沙河污水处理厂为例，介绍了沙河污水处理厂厂址的选择及该项目带来的工程效益。     

Municipal-treated wastewater reuse for plant nurseries irrigation

Results of an experiment aimed at assessing the possibility of reusing reclaimed wastewater for nursery ornamental plants are presented. Tests were carried out in Pistoia (Italy). A pilot plant for tertiary treatment (filtration and peracetic acid + UV disinfection) of the local wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent was set up. An experimental plot with six containerized ornamental species was irrigated with the tertiary effluent and growth and physiological parameters were monitored. A control plot irrigated with fertigated water (nutrient-enriched groundwater) was also set up in order to compare the plants response to different kinds of irrigation water. The refinery treatment by filtration and disinfection with Peracetic Acid (PAA) and UV together was very effective in bacteria removal. The value of 2 MPN of Total Coliforms in 100 ml set by Italian law (until June 2003) for unrestricted irrigation was constantly satisfied. Agronomic results indicate no major limitations to the use of a tertiary effluent as an irrigation source in an ornamental plant nursery. The nutrient content of the tertiary effluent was able to maintain good plant growth as well as fertigated water for most of the tested species.     

The application of a recently isolated strain of Bacteroides (GB-124) to identify human sources of faecal pollution in a temperate river catchment

Recent work has suggested that bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides are a potential tool for faecal source tracking, but that different host strains may be needed for different geographic areas. This study used a recently identified strain of Bacteroides (GB-124) to detect human sources of faecal pollution in a river catchment in southeast England (UK). A total of 306 river water, municipal wastewater and animal samples were obtained over a 16-month period. Bacteriophages capable of infecting GB-124 were present in all municipal wastewaters but were not detected in faecal samples from animals, and were detected at significantly lower levels (P< 0.001) in river waters directly downstream of a dairy farm. This last observation was despite the presence of high levels of faecal indicator bacteria at this site. The study suggests that GB-124 appears to be specific to human faeces. As such it may represent an effective and low-cost method of faecal source identification.     

The impact of increased loading rate on granular media, rapid depth filtration of wastewater

The impact of loading rate on tertiary filtration of wastewater was studied using a pilot-scale, dual-media, rapid depth filtration system. Loading rates of 12.2, 15.3, 18.3, 21.4, and 24.4m/h were tested on parallel filter columns treating the same coagulated secondary wastewater to determine the impact on removal of turbidity, particles (2-15 microm), total coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, and MS2 bacteriophage, as well as on the particle deposition profile in the filter bed. Increasing the loading rate from 12.2 to 24.4m/h decreased the removal efficiencies for all metrics. The observed impact of loading rate on particle removal was similar to that predicted by a clean-bed filtration model, although the model significantly underestimated the removal efficiencies of the smaller particles. For two loading rates, 12.2 and 18.3m/h, the effect of coagulant dose was also studied; the negative impact of loading rate on removal efficiency was eliminated by increasing the coagulant dose for the higher loading rate, which also resulted in removal of particles deeper in the filter bed. For all conditions studied, loading rate had no observable impact on the ability to disinfect filter effluents with chloramines. The results of this research indicate that loading rates higher than those typically used in tertiary filtration can produce acceptable effluent quality, and support a regulatory approach based on filter effluent turbidity.     

Quantitative real-time PCR analysis of total and propidium monoazide-resistant fecal indicator bacteria in wastewater

A real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) method and a modification of this method incorporating pretreatment of samples with propidium monoazide (PMA) were evaluated for respective analyses of total and presumptively viable Enterococcus and Bacteroidales fecal indicator bacteria. These methods were used in the analyses of wastewater samples to investigate their feasibility as alternatives to current fecal indicator bacteria culture methods for predicting the efficiency of viral pathogen removal by standard treatment processes. PMA treatment was effective in preventing qPCR detection of target sequences from non-viable cells. Concentrates of small volume, secondary-treated wastewater samples, collected from a publicly owned treatment works (POTW) under normal operating conditions, had little influence on this effectiveness. Higher levels of total suspended solids, such as those associated with normal primary treatment and all treatment stages during storm flow events, appeared to interfere with PMA effectiveness under the sample preparation conditions employed. During normal operating conditions at three different POTWs, greater reductions were observed in PMA-qPCR detectable target sequences of both Enterococcus and Bacteroidales than in total qPCR detectable sequences. These reductions were not as great as those observed for cultivable fecal indicator bacteria in response to wastewater disinfection. Reductions of PMA-qPCR as well as total qPCR detectable target sequences from enterococci and, to a lesser extent, Bacteroidales correlated well with reductions in infectious viruses during both normal and storm flow operating conditions and therefore may have predictive value in determining the efficiency at which these pathogens are removed.     

Degradation of emergent contaminants by UV,UV/H2O2 and neutral photo-Fenton at pilot scale in a domestic wastewater treatment plant

This study focuses on the removal of 22 selected micropollutants in an effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (MWTP) at pilot scale. A reactor of 37 L with five low pressure mercury lamps emitting at 254 nm (UV₂₅₄) was used. The 22 micropollutants include 15 pharmaceuticals, 2 X-Ray contrast medias, 1 corrosion inhibitor and 4 biocides/pesticides. Five of these 22 compounds were used as indicative substances as proposed by the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) (carbamazepine, diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole, benzotriazole and mecoprop).     

Desert energy: a guide to the technology,impacts and opportunities

The performances of single-pass vertically loaded fibrous peat biofilters treating septic tank wastewater from a single household (pe 6) and a small rural housing estate (pe ~100) are compared. Both systems achieved >90% BOD removal and consistently low suspended solids <11?mg?L^?1. Pathogen removal was generally >95% but inconsistent. Nitrification was linked to temperature with removal rates seasonal (50–98%) with no denitrification; this resulted in final effluents with either high NH₄ or NO₃ concentrations, both unsuitable for discharge to surface or ground waters. Phosphorus removal was generally poor. The filters responded poorly to sudden increases in hydraulic loading, causing a reduction in BOD removal in particular. Subsequent soil treatment of effluents after filtration caused a small decrease in both physicochemical and microbial quality. Single-pass vertical peat filters cannot meet the more stringent EU nutrient and microbial standards required for on-site treatment without tertiary treatment to ensure full compliance.     

Influence of residual organic macromolecules produced in biological wastewater treatment processes on removal of pharmaceuticals by NF/RO membranes

Increasing attention has been given to pollution of the water environment by pharmaceutical compounds discharged from wastewater treatment plants. High-pressure driven membranes such as a nanofiltration (NF) membrane and a reverse osmosis (RO) membrane are considered to be effective for control of pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment. In practical applications of NF/RO membranes to municipal wastewater treatment, feed water for the membranes always contains organic macromolecules at concentrations of up to 10 mg-TOC/L, which are mainly composed of soluble microbial products (SMPs) produced during biological wastewater treatment such as an activated sludge process. In this study, influence of these organic macromolecules on removal of six pharmaceuticals by NF/RO membranes (UTC-60 and LF10) was investigated. Two types of biological treatment (conventional activated sludge process followed by media filtration (i.e., tertiary treatment) and treatment with a membrane bioreactor (MBR)) were examined as pretreatments for NF/RO membranes in this study. In the filtration tests with wastewater effluents, removal of the pharmaceuticals was higher than that seen with deionized pure water spiked with the pharmaceuticals. The increase was significant in the case of the NF membrane. Both alteration of membrane surface properties due to membrane fouling and association of the pharmaceuticals with organic macromolecules contributed to the increase in removal of pharmaceuticals by the membranes. Characteristics of the organic macromolecules contained in the wastewater effluents differed depending on the type of treatment, implying that removal of pharmaceuticals by NF/RO membranes is influenced by the type of pretreatment employed.     

A review of the technological feasibility of aquacultures for municipal wastewater treatment

The technical feasibility of utilising aquacultures for municipal wastewater treatment is reviewed. Aquacultures containing one or more aquatic weeds are cost effective for secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment, compared to the highly energy intensive conventional secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment systems. The major advantages are less capital and maintenance costs required as opposed to conventional wastewater treatment. Aquatic treatment systems utilising one or two aquatic weeds are efficient in substantial removal of phosphorus and nitrogen from the wastewater compared to the conventional secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment systems. Further, biogas generated from the harvested aquatic weed biomass could meet the treatment costs of the aquatic treatment systems utilising these aquatic weeds. Year round treatment of municipal wastewater utilising these aquatic weeds is possible even in the temperate regions of the world by housing the treatment systems in green houses. Other aquatic weeds which have tolerance to extreme cold conditions could be tested to make year round treatment of wastewater in aquatic treatment systems.     

Optimization of PCR-based methods for rapid detection of Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli and Yersinia enterocolitica serovar 0:3 in wastewater samples

PCR-based methods were evaluated for their adequacy to assess the removal of pathogens from wastewater samples. For the development and optimization of the methods, samples were taken at two different sites from two different constructed wetlands. Campylobacter jejuni/coli and Yersinia enterocolitica serogroup 0:3 were selected as model pathogens and Enterococcus faecalis as a standard microbiological indicator. The chosen PCR protocols were optimized for wastewater DNA extracts in order to obtain high sensitivity and reproducibility independently of the background flora. All PCR protocols were successfully performed and reproducible with a background of up to 10(10) nontarget cells per reaction. Five cells of Y. enterocolitica, 50 cells of C. jejuni/coli, and 500 cells of E. faecalis per 100ml treated water could be detected. The method detection limit in the settled wastewater was higher: 200 cells per 100ml for Y. enterocolitica, 2000 cells per 100ml for C. jejuni/coli, and 20,000 cells per 100ml for E. faecalis. C. jejuni/coli and Y. enterocolitica PCRs were adapted to municipal wastewater, with higher loads of potential PCR inhibitors. Sensitivity was lower for this type of wastewater: 200 cells of Y. enterocolitica and 2000 cells of C. jejuni/coli were detected per 100ml treated wastewater, 2500 cells of Y. enterocolitica and 25,000 cells of C. jejuni/coli per 100ml settled wastewater. The developed PCR methods enable the detection of C. jejuni/coli, Y. enterocolitica serogroup 0:3 and E. faecalis within 12h. They show specificity, reproducibility and low detection limits for the investigated pathogens.     

Tertiary filtered municipal wastewater as alternative water source in agriculture: a field investigation in Southern Italy

Results are reported concerning a 2-year field investigation on municipal wastewater reclamation for the irrigation of two experimental crops: tomato and fennel. Throughout the investigation, approximately 500 m(3) of tertiary membrane filtered wastewater without further disinfection was supplied to one of two parcels (500 m(2) each) of a test field located in Southern Italy. The second parcel was comparatively irrigated with 500 m(3) of conventional well water. Objectives of the investigation were (i) the evaluation of the performance of a membrane filtration pilot plant (productivity=0.7 m(3)h(-1)) for tertiary treatment and (ii) the comparison between agronomic results (features of soil and crops) after irrigation with reclaimed wastewater versus conventional groundwater. Over long term operation, the pilot plant performance resulted very good in terms of suspended solids and bacterial removal. Referring to the agronomic results, no substantial differences were observed after 2 years, both in terms of microbiological quality of the crops and characteristics of the soil. The whole results indicate membrane filtered municipal effluent as a viable alternative water resource for irrigation.     

On‐site wastewater treatment using reactive filter media

The aim of this study is to reduce the phosphate concentration in treated wastewater using a small amount of the reactive filter media, Filtralite P. Biologically treated wastewater was passed through a filter with 215 g of Filtralite P. In the laboratory, the phosphate removal efficiency was 51% at a flow speed of 0.87 m/h. Under real conditions, in an experimental stand filled with 0.5 m³ of Filtralite P, the phosphate removal efficiency was 85% and the removal efficiency of total suspended solids was 57% after a 5‐month period. The residual phosphate concentration in the filtrate from the experimental stand was 1 mg/L of PO₄‐P after the 5‐month period. The experimental filtration plant was buried in the ground, and it did not freeze and worked well under winter conditions. The results of this study can be useful in the design and development of tertiary wastewater treatment plants in view of their sustainability potential.