Debates on food security and agrofood world governance

Mechanisms of global governance, developed in response to initiatives adopted by the FAO to combat hunger and confront food crises, are the result of wide ranging historical debates using three basic criteria for justification: the scientific, the political‐ideological, and the ethical. On the basis of these criteria, certain forms of understanding and acting on agriculture, health and nutrition at global level have come to be accepted as valid. Currently the debate and the resulting proposals are based on the recognition of food as a universal human right.     

Coordination in food security crises: a stakeholder analysis of the challenges facing the global food security cluster

In mid 2011, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Food Programme (WFP) formally launched the global Food Security Cluster (FSC) as the UN’s global mechanism for coordinating food security responses in emergencies worldwide. The need for greater coordination of food security response in emergencies is enormous: Not only is the number of actors growing ever larger, the operating environment is more complex, and the range of responses requires substantially greater levels of skill than ever in analysis, planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. Will this new mechanism provide the leadership needed for complex, multi-dimensional responses needed to protect food security and livelihoods in disasters? What are the special challenges the cluster faces? This paper analyzes a series of country level case studies and key informant interviews with stakeholders in a range of roles to address these questions.     

Revitalizing agricultural research for global food security

An imaginative American legislation, the Morrill Act of 1862, established the U. S. Land Grant University Model, where such universities would adopt a uniform, tri-partite function of education, research, and extension. It legislated that these universities would provide segments of society with practical and timely education that would be useful to their daily lives. A profound concept based on a system that focused on educating the next generation of agricultural scientists, providing support to the generation of new knowledge and technology, and communicating the results of the new discoveries to key stakeholders was born. Sustained support of this 19th century legislation and the commitment and drive of generations of agricultural scientists and farmers brought about remarkable advances, making 20th century American agriculture most productive and the envy of the world. These successes were replicated in North America, Europe, and in much of the developed world, and served as the impetus for the emergence of the Asian Green Revolution. Farming became a profitable business and consumers were accustomed to safe and relatively inexpensive supply of food, unfortunately leading to 21st century complacency. The recent food price crises seem to have reawakened world leaders and donor agencies to the necessity of assuring the food security of nations and to revitalizing and reinvesting in the agricultural sciences.     

从全球食品保障指数探讨食品安全

近年来食品安全问题日益突出,建立公众参与的客观、公平、独立、透明的风险评估、风险交流机制成为我国未来应对食品安全风险的重要措施。2013年7月,英国经济学人智库(EIU)发布了"全球食品安全指数(GFSI)",对我国当年食品安全状况作了评估,受到各方的高度关注。为了让公众对相关背景有较为全面的了解,理性地对待我国的食品安全问题,我们依据相关信息,对GFSI作了客观解读,并以中国、美国和印度为例,从食品价格承受能力、食品供应能力和质量与安全三个方面,对这三个国家的食品安全状况进行了对比,并对我国食品安全监管体系的最新调整和改革措施进行了述评。     

Politicizing food security governance through participation: opportunities and opposition

Since the 2007/08 food price crisis there has been a proliferation of multi-stakeholder processes (MSPs) devoted to bringing diverse perspectives together to inform and improve food security policy. While much of the literature highlights the positive contributions to be gained from an opening-up of traditionally state-led processes, there is a strong critique emerging to show that, in many instances, MSPs have de-politicizing effects. In this paper, we scrutinize MSPs in relation to de-politicization. We argue that re-building sustainable and just food systems requires alternative visions that can best be made visible through politicized policy processes. Focusing on three key conditions of politicization, we examine the UN Committee on World Food Security as a MSP where we see a process of politicization playing out through the endorsement of the ‘most-affected’ principle, which is in turn being actively contested by traditionally powerful actors. We conclude that there is a need to implement and reinforce mechanisms that deliberately politicize participation in MSPs, notably by clearly distinguishing between states and other stakeholders, as well as between categories of non-state actors.     

Skyfarming an ecological innovation to enhance global food security

Population growth increases the demand for food and thus leads to expansion of cultivated land and intensification of agricultural production. There is a definite limit to both of these options for food security and their multiple negative effects on the environment undermine the aim for sustainability. Presently the impact of the Green Revolution on crop production is levelling off at high yields attained and even the potential of large scale irrigation programmes and transgenic crops seem to be limited in view of the expected increase in demand for food. Moreover, climate change threatens to affect agricultural production across the globe. Skyfarming represents a promising approach for food production that is largely environment independent and therefore immune to climate change. Optimal growing conditions, shielded from weather extremes and pests are aimed at raising plant production towards the physiological potential. Selecting rice as a pioneer crop for Skyfarming will not only provide a staple for a large part of the global population, but also significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emission caused by paddy cultivation. Multiplication of the benefits could be achieved by stacking production floors vertically. In Skyfarming the crop, with its requirements for optimal growth, development and production, determines the system’s design. Accordingly, the initial development must focus on the growing environment, lighting, temperature, humidity regulation and plant protection strategies as well as on the overall energy supply. For each of these areas potentially suitable technologies are presented and discussed.     

Skyfarming an ecological innovation to enhance global food security

Population growth increases the demand for food and thus leads to expansion of cultivated land and intensification of agricultural production. There is a definite limit to both of these options for food security and their multiple negative effects on the environment undermine the aim for sustainability. Presently the impact of the Green Revolution on crop production is levelling off at high yields attained and even the potential of large scale irrigation programmes and transgenic crops seem to be limited in view of the expected increase in demand for food. Moreover, climate change threatens to affect agricultural production across the globe. Skyfarming represents a promising approach for food production that is largely environment independent and therefore immune to climate change. Optimal growing conditions, shielded from weather extremes and pests are aimed at raising plant production towards the physiological potential. Selecting rice as a pioneer crop for Skyfarming will not only provide a staple for a large part of the global population, but also significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emission caused by paddy cultivation. Multiplication of the benefits could be achieved by stacking production floors vertically. In Skyfarming the crop, with its requirements for optimal growth, development and production, determines the system??s design. Accordingly, the initial development must focus on the growing environment, lighting, temperature, humidity regulation and plant protection strategies as well as on the overall energy supply. For each of these areas potentially suitable technologies are presented and discussed.     

Crop health and its global impacts on the components of food security

The literature on the importance of plant pathogens sometimes emphasizes their possible role in historical food shortages and even in famines. Aside from such major crises, plant pathogens should also be seen as important reducers of crop performances, with impacts on system sustainability, from the ecological, agronomical, social, and economic standpoints – all contributing ultimately to affecting food security. These views need reconciliation in order to produce a clearer picture of the multidimensional effects of plant disease epidemics. Such a picture is needed for disease management today, but would also be useful for future policies. This article attempts to develop a framework that would enable assessment of the impacts of plant diseases, referred collectively to as crop health, on food security via its components. We have combined three different existing definitions of food security in order to develop a framework consisting of the following six components: (1) Availability. Primary production; (2) Availability. Import - Stockpiles; (3) Access. Physical and supply chain; (4) Access. Economic; (5) Stability of food availability; (6) Utility-Safety-Quality-Nutritive value. In this framework, components of food security are combined with three attributes of production situations: the nature of the considered crop (i.e. food- or non-food), the structure of farms (i.e. subsistence or commercial), and the structure of markets (i.e. weakly organized and local, to strongly organized and globalized). The resulting matrix: [Food security components] × [Attributes of production situations] provides a framework where the impacts of chronic, acute, and emerging plant disease epidemics on food security can be examined. We propose that, given the number of components and interactions at play, a systems modelling approach is required to address the functioning of food systems exposed to plant disease risks. This approach would have application in both the management of the current attrition of crop performances by plant diseases, and also of possible disease-induced shocks. Such an approach would also enable quantifying shifts in disease vulnerability of production situations, and therefore, of food systems, as a result of climate change, globalization, and evolving crop health.     

Food security and poverty in Mexico: the impact of higher global food prices

During the period 2006–2008, general inflation around the world was pressed upwards by food inflation. An important reason for concern about the impact of high food prices arises from the fact that the poorest people spend approximately three quarters of their income on staple foods. In Mexico, meals are based on maize, with tortillas providing much of the caloric intake in rural areas. Prices of maize along with nearly every agricultural commodity sharply increased creating a global food price bubble. Using the Household Income and Expenditure National Survey (Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares ENIGH) conducted in 2006 and 2008, it was found that higher prices for maize affected Mexican household living standards and food security both in urban and rural areas. There is an evident decay in household living standards from year 2006 to year 2008. In regional terms, urban areas are better off than rural areas. The poorest rural and urban households—net buyers of maize—were the most affected as their budget share on maize increased significantly. However, higher prices provided direct benefits to maize producers in rural areas at all levels of living. Another effect of higher maize prices was to redistribute income towards maize producer households in the middle and bottom of the rural income distribution.     

Exploring the impact of the 2008 global food crisis on food security among vulnerable households in rural South Africa

Recurring food crises endanger the livelihoods of millions of households in developing countries around the globe. Owing to the importance of this issue, we explored recent changes in food security between the years 2004 and 2010 in a rural district in Northeastern South Africa. Our study window spans the time of the 2008 global food crisis and allows the investigation of its impacts on rural South African populations. Grounded in the sustainable livelihood framework, we examined differences in food security trajectories among vulnerable sub populations. A unique panel data set of 8,147 households, provided by the Agincourt Health and Demographic Surveillance System (Agincourt HDSS), allowed us to employ a longitudinal multilevel modeling approach to estimate adjusted growth curves for the differential changes in food security across time. We observed an overall improvement in food security that leveled off after 2008, most likely resulting from the global food crisis. In addition, we discovered significant differences in food security trajectories for various sub populations. For example, female-headed households and those living in areas with better access to natural resources differentially improved their food security situation, compared to male-headed households and those households with lower levels of natural resource access. However, former Mozambican refugees witnessed a decline in food security. Therefore, poverty alleviation programs for the Agincourt region should work to improve the food security of vulnerable households, such as former Mozambican refugees.     

A food systems approach to researching food security and its interactions with global environmental change

There is growing concern that satisfying societal demand for food over coming decades will be increasingly challenging. Much of the debate centres on increasing food production which has always been–and remains–an important strategy to alleviate food insecurity. However, despite the fact that more than enough food is currently produced per capita to adequately feed the global population, about 925 million people remained food insecure in 2010. Meeting future demand will be further complicated by deleterious changes in climate and other environmental factors (collectively termed ‘global environmental change’, GEC). This paper lays out a case for a food systems approach to research the complex food security/GEC arena and provides a number of examples of how this can help. These include (i) providing a framework for structuring dialogues aimed at enhancing food security and identifying the range of actors and other interested parties who should be involved; (ii) integrating analyses of the full set of food system activities (i.e. producing, storing, processing, packaging, trading and consuming food) with those of the food security outcomes i.e. stability of food access, utilisation and availability, and all their nine elements (rather than only food production); (iii) helping to both assess the impacts of GEC on food systems and identify feedbacks to the earth system from food system activities; (iv) helping to identify intervention points for enhancing food security and analysing synergies and trade-offs between food security, ecosystem services and social welfare outcomes of different adaptation pathways; and (v) highlighting where new research is needed.     

Declining global per capita agricultural production and warming oceans threaten food security

Despite accelerating globalization, most people still eat food that is grown locally. Developing countries with weak purchasing power tend to import as little food as possible from global markets, suffering consumption deficits during times of high prices or production declines. Local agricultural production, therefore, is critical to both food security and economic development among the rural poor. The level of local agricultural production, in turn, will be determined by the amount and quality of arable land, the amount and quality of agricultural inputs (fertilizer, seeds, pesticides, etc.), as well as farm-related technology, practices and policies. This paper discusses several emerging threats to global and regional food security, including declining yield gains that are failing to keep up with population increases, and warming in the tropical Indian Ocean and its impact on rainfall. If yields continue to grow more slowly than per capita harvested area, parts of Africa, Asia and Central and Southern America will experience substantial declines in per capita cereal production. Global per capita cereal production will potentially decline by 14% between 2008 and 2030. Climate change is likely to further affect food production, particularly in regions that have very low yields due to lack of technology. Drought, caused by anthropogenic warming in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, may also reduce 21st century food availability in some countries by disrupting moisture transports and bringing down dry air over crop growing areas. The impacts of these circulation changes over Asia remain uncertain. For Africa, however, Indian Ocean warming appears to have already reduced rainfall during the main growing season along the eastern edge of tropical Africa, from southern Somalia to northern parts of the Republic of South Africa. Through a combination of quantitative modeling of food balances and an examination of climate change, this study presents an analysis of emerging threats to global food security.     

Moving from traditional government to new adaptive governance: the changing face of food security responses in South Africa

The food system faces increasing pressure from dynamic and interactive, environmental, political and socio-economic stressors. Tackling the complexity that arises from such interactions requires a new form of 'adaptive governance'. This paper provides a review of various conceptions of governance from a monocentric or politicotechnical understanding of governance through to adaptive governance that is based in complex adaptive systems theory. The review is grounded by a critique of the existing institutional structures responsible for food security in South Africa. The current Integrated Food Security Strategy and tasked governmental departments are not sufficiently flexible or coordinated to deal with an issue as multi-scalar and multidisciplinary as food security. However, actions taken in the non-governmental sector signal the emergence of a new type of governance. Apart from an increasing recognition of food security as an issue of concern in the country, there is also evidence of a changing governance structure including collaboration between diverse stakeholders. We review these governance trends with an understanding of the food system as a complex adaptive socio-ecological system where actors in the food system self-organize into more flexible networks that can better adapt to uncertain pressures.     

协同治理视角下食品安全治理问题研究

随着我国社会主义市场经济的发展,人们物质生活水平不断提高,特别是饮食质量有了大幅度提升,食品种类丰富多彩,但各种食品安全问题也随之而来,说明我国食品安全监管依然存在漏洞。从食品安全治理理论的角度来看,食品安全如果出现市场调节失灵,则需要通过政府来干预;如果政府监管缺乏效率,则需要社会主体参与到协同治理中。在当前我国机构改革背景下,协同治理成为大势所趋。本文考察了食品安全协同治理现状,探讨协同治理的必要性及影响因素,提出推进协同治理进程的相应对策,为食品安全协同治理机制的构建提供参考。     

Policy conflicts in global food assistance strategies: balancing local procurement and harmonization

Coordinated efforts through multilevel governance are important to addressing global food insecurity by mitigating policy conflicts and working towards meeting collective objectives as effectively and efficiently as possible. While multi-stakeholder efforts to provide nutrition-sensitive food assistance have been met with some degree of success, this paper demonstrates that policy change in one area of food security governance has the potential to have unintended consequences on other components within the governance framework. This paper examines the interactive dynamic of three core components of multilevel governance frameworks for international food assistance, specifically Ready-To-Use Foods (RUF) to treat malnutrition, local-regional procurement (LRP) strategies of raw materials for RUFs and international standards for food safety and quality applicable to finished RUFs. It shows how proposed changes in international standards for RUF food safety and quality may have the potential to complicate existing and future efforts to incorporate locally sourced raw materials like pulses into RUF formulations and may also have unanticipated impacts on long-term food security goals pursued at other levels of decision-making.     

The potential effects of demands for natural and safe foods on global food security

There are a number of intersecting and conflicting issues that may require greater oversight than is currently evident:

1. Global food security as defined by FAO, requires that all people have access to adequate supplies of safe, nutritious food of their own choice for healthy living. There is evidence that such amounts of suitable food are being produced in the world today, but not available to all (FAO, 2006).

2. Demands for natural and safe foods and ingredients are expanding and people in the new and developed countries can afford to pay premium prices.

3. Relatively inexpensive air freight allows rapid deliveries of “fresh” and minimally processed food items along extensive supply chains. There are no calculations of environmental costs in evidence.

4. Minimum food processing is demanded, placing a heavy reliance on local safety standards at point of origin and in transit. This can and has created conflict of priorities between improving local safety standards and maintaining profitability. Recent events in China are an important case study.

5. Risks to consumers can escalate as increasing sales demand an expanding range of suppliers and a sometimes expanding supply chain. Failure of any one link can be critical for the chain and its end-user.

6. Opportunities for international suppliers and demands on the production potential of many developing countries can reduce the availability of basic foods to local markets.

7. A new phenomenon has arisen of obesity and starvation occurring simultaneously in the same country (The Australian, 2007), an example of national wealth divergence.

Conclusions

Natural does not mean Safe, particularly with regard to food. Disturbing outcomes during interviews for a local television programme, Catalyst (www.abc.net.au/catalyst, 16 August, 2007), were the extent to which not only the members of the public, but also a General Medical Practitioner, interviewed believed that natural products must be safe. This is an ongoing concern for the food industry and others.Safe food is a term relative to local customs and standards and the further the foods travel from a culture, the greater the need for compliance with accepted international food safety and quality standards. Economic pressures are always likely to compromises in meeting stringent requirements.The demands and freedom of food choice emanating from the growing affluence of some can severely limit the possibilities of food security for others.The International Council for Science (ICSU, www.icsu.org) has a number of programmes in place looking at issues such as Global Environmental Change and Food Systems (GECAFS) and Health and Wellbeing in the Changing Urban Environment (SHWB). Both projects deserve attention.Ultimately, it will depend on each of us and our attitudes as consumers as to how a balance can be obtained between free choice and food security for all. Last month we reached the mid-term of the Millennium Development Goals to reduce the world's hunger by half. We have not met our targets so far and there are signs of harvest difficulties ahead. A more engaging strategy is needed with greater international cooperation. Are we up to the challenge?Free Trade, Fair Trade and Safe Trade are not, after all, equivalent.Food security “Food Security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preference for an active and healthy life.”FAO, 1996.“All substances are poisons: there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy.”Paracelsus, 1493–1541.World Food Summit (WFS) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Despite disappointing performances in reducing the number of hungry people, a smaller percentage of the populations of developing countries is undernourished today compared with 1990–92: 17 percent against 20 percent. FAO's projections suggest that the proportion of hungry people in developing countries in 2015 could be about half of what it was in 1990–92: a drop from 20 to 10 percent.Thus the world is on a path to meeting the MDG 1 on hunger reduction but will miss the WFS target by 170 million people.FAO, 2006.

欧盟食品中染料使用情况的研究

随着苏丹红和孔雀石绿突发事件等在欧盟首次爆发,欧盟对食品中使用的染料情况越来越关注。本文从欧盟致癌染料现状、其他非食品用的染料现状、欧盟不允许使用但仍有可能在其他国家使用的染料、欧盟对着色剂法律法规等进行阐述,有利于我国食品出口企业掌握欧盟最新食品添加剂的管理动态,严格按照欧盟的标准生产产品,规避出口风险。     

欧盟转基因食品安全的法律基础

食品安全的法律建设 ,既是保证食品安全 ,搞好“放心菜篮子”的需要 ,也是在国际贸易中实施本国环境战略的需要。简要介绍欧盟转基因食品安全的法律要求 ,以期在我国相应的法律建设中起参考作用。