Heat Transfer to Steam-Water Annular Dispersed Flow in Vertical Annulus

The heat transfer coefficient and slow burnout heat flux were measured for a stream-water annular dispersed upward flow under pressures up to 3.5 ata in an electrically heated vertical annular channel.

An empirical equation was derived for the heat transfer coefficient as function of mass flow rate, steam quality and heat flux. The dominant mechanism of heat transfer to the annular dispersed two-phase flow is forced convection of liquid film on the heater surface even in the region of low steam quality (down to about 0.03). The observed slow burnout heat flux was near the point of intersection of the lines representing liquid film forced convective heat transfer and nucleate boiling heat transfer on the q vs. δT _sat diagram. A dryout mechanism is proposed in which increasingly violent evaporation comes to impede the rewetting of the dry patches generated on the heater surface, which thus spread to cover the whole surface. A maximum value is observed in the slow burnout heat flux plotted against exit steam quality. This can be explained as the effect of heat removal by droplet exchange between liquid film and steam flow.     

Estimation of fuel and clad temperature of a research reactor during dry period of de-fuelling operation

Heat transfer and fluid flow studies related to spent fuel bundle of a research reactor in fuelling machine has been carried out. When the fuel is in reactor core, the heat generated in the fuel bundle is removed by heavy water under normal reactor operation. However, during the de-fuelling operation, the fuel bundle is exposed to air for some period called dry period. During this period, the decay heat from fuel bundle has to be removed by air flow. This flow of air is induced by natural convection only. In this period, the temperatures of fuel and clad rise. If clad temperature rises beyond a certain limit, structural failure may occur. This failure can result into release of fission products from fuel rod. Hence the temperature of clad has to be within specified limit under all conditions. The objective of this study is to estimate the clad temperature rise during the dry period.In the CFD simulation, the turbulent natural convection flow over fuel and radiation heat transfer are accounted. Standard k-? model for turbulence, Boussinesq approximation for computing the natural convection flow and IMMERSOL model for radiation are used.The steady state and transient CFD simulation of flow and heat is performed, using the CFD code PHOENICS. The steady state analysis provides the maximum temperature the clad will attain if fuel bundle is left exposed to air for sufficiently long time. For safe operation, the clad temperature should be limited to a specified value. From steady state CFD analysis, it is found that steady state clad temperature for various decay powers is higher than the limiting value. Hence transient analysis is also performed. In the transient analysis, the variation of clad temperature with time is predicted for various decay powers. Safe dry time, i.e. the time required for clad to reach the limiting value, is predicted for various decay powers. Determination of safe dry time helps in deciding the time available to the operator to drop the bundle in light water pool for storage. The analysis is found useful in optimizing the de-fuelling process.     

Boiling heat transfer behavior of lead–bismuth–steam–water direct contact two-phase flow

The boiling heat transfer behavior of lead–bismuth (Pb–Bi)–steam–water direct contact two-phase flow was experimentally investigated. Experimental study was performed using Pb–Bi–steam–water direct contact boiling two-phase flow loop. The heat transfer rate was estimated from data of one-dimensional flow direct contact boiling of water in Pb–Bi. It is assumed in the analysis that film boiling occurs at the surfaces of a small water droplet after water is injected into hot Pb–Bi flow, because of the large temperature difference between water and Pb–Bi (i.e. 493 K and 733 K for injection water and Pb–Bi temperature, respectively). The heat transfer occurs between Pb–Bi and steam without phase change after all water completely evaporates. The overall heat transfer coefficient decreased with the superheat at low injection flow rate and was nearly constant for high injection flow rate. The local heat transfer coefficient was higher than average one in the whole tube, which means that the direct contact boiling heat transfer coefficient was high and it decreased in the downstream direction. Almost all the water vaporized in the test tube at high pressure according to the local and total heat transfer rate.     

Heat Transfer in a Fluid with Internal Heat Generation Flowing through a Vertical Tube

This paper deals with heat transfer in a fluid, with uniformly distributed internal heat source, flowing upwards through a vertical tube. Measurements were made of the temperature distribution in both laminar and turbulent flow, and both with and without heat transfer at wall. Heat generation within the fluid was brought about by passing an electrical current through the working fluid, which was an aqueous solution of sodium chloride. The experimental results were compared with analytical calculations.

Free convection, which occurs and is superimposed on the movement by forced convection, flattens the fluid temperature distribution in laminar flow through thermally insulated vertical tube. In turbulent flow with heat transfer to wall, the temperature distribution near the wall is affected considerably by the outgoing heat flux.     

QM-400 CFD自然对流模型研究及验证

秦山第三核电厂乏燃料干式贮存模块QM-400是我国第一座投入商业运行的干式贮存设施，模块内的热量交换主要包括自然对流、热传导、耦合传热和辐射换热等。本文精确计算了典型环境温度下每个燃料篮的衰变热，运用商用计算流体动力学（CFD）软件FLUENT 14.0开展了网格敏感性分析，并建立了QM-400存储模块的自然对流CFD分析模型。结果表明，模块顶面、侧面以及贮存筒表面压力和温度分布符合自然对流规律，计算的测点温度与现场的实测温度符合良好，测点温度随环境温度的变化趋势也与实测趋势符合良好，证明了建立的CFD自然对流计算方法的正确性。本文结果为后续采用CFD方法进行取消绝热板后的温度场计算奠定了基础。     

基于辐射-对流-传导热流固耦合模型的乏燃料贮运容器传热特性与优化研究

基于辐射-对流-传导的热流固耦合计算流体动力学（CFD）模型,对比不同放置状态、环境温度、容器内部填充介质和有无环形翅片情况下,各部件最高温度、自然对流流速、外表面辐射及对流功率的变化。结果表明,水平放置有利于强化环形翅片的对流传热;环境温度每升高10℃,燃料包壳温度增加6.5℃,外壁面温度增加8.3℃;燃料篮内部填充物由中子吸收板或铝块更换为氦气后,容器整体导热性能明显降低,容器内部温度升高,但容器壁面温度基本不变;如不考虑太阳暴晒,环形翅片可增加对流传热,使得容器整体温度降低;如考虑太阳暴晒,环形翅片会增加太阳暴晒能量的吸收,使容器整体温度反而比光滑壁面容器高;基于代数分析法和漫灰表面模型对CFD辐射模型进行验证,CFD辐射功率和公式法计算结果基本一致。      

Film boiling heat transfer from a vertical cylinder in forced flow of liquids under saturated and subcooled conditions at pressures

Forced convection film boiling heat transfer on a vertical 3-mm diameter and 180-mm length platinum test cylinder located in the center of the 40-mm inner diameter test channel was measured. Saturated water, and saturated and subcooled R113 were used as the test liquids that flowed upward along the cylinder in the test channel. Flow velocities ranged from 0 to 3 m s⁻¹, pressures from 102 to 490 kPa, and liquid subcoolings for R113 from 0 to 60 K. The heat transfer coefficients for a certain pressure and liquid subcooling are almost independent of flow velocity and of a vertical position on the cylinder for the flow velocities lower than ≈1 m s⁻¹ (the first range), and they become higher for the velocities higher than ≈1 m s⁻¹ (the second range). Slight dependence on a vertical position being nearly proportional to z^−1/4, where z is the height from the leading edge of the test cylinder, exists for the flow velocities in the second range. The heat transfer coefficients at each velocity in the first and second ranges are higher for higher pressure and liquid subcooling. Correlation for the forced convection film boiling heat transfer with radiation contribution on a vertical cylinder was derived by modifying an approximate analytical solution for a two-phase laminar boundary layer model to agree better with the experimental data. It was confirmed that the experimental data of film boiling heat transfer coefficients in water and R113 were described by the correlation within ±20% difference.     

乏燃料干式储存模块衰变热导出的三维仿真计算分析

建立了QM-400储存模块内自然对流换热的三维流动及换热的计算模型,计算了QM-400储存模块内部的三维流场和温度场,得到了压力分布和速度分布以及储存筒表面的温度分布.在储存筒内部,建立了三维流场和换热的计算模型,并进行了计算,获得了乏燃料包壳的表面温度.     

Effective thermal conductivity of a heat generating rod bundle dissipating heat by natural convection and radiation

A numerical study of conjugate natural convection and surface radiation in a horizontal hexagonal sheath housing 19 solid heat generating rods with cladding and argon as the fill gas, is performed. The natural convection in the sheath is driven by the volumetric heat generation in the solid rods. The problem is solved using the FLUENT CFD code. A correlation is obtained to predict the maximum temperature in the rod bundle for different pitch-to-diameter ratios and heat generating rates. The effective thermal conductivity is related to the heat generation rate, maximum temperature and the sheath temperature. Results are presented for the dimensionless maximum temperature, Rayleigh number and the contribution of radiation with changing emissivity, total wattage and the pitch-to-diameter ratio. In the simulation of a larger system that contains a rod bundle, the effective thermal conductivity facilitates simplified modelling of the rod bundle by treating it as a solid of effective thermal conductivity. The parametric studies revealed that the contribution of radiation can be 38–65% of the total heat generation, for the parameter ranges chosen. Data for critical Rayleigh number above which natural convection comes into effect is also presented.     

流体动压型核主泵机械密封腔内流动与传热研究

To study the distribution of the flow and temperature field in a type of hydrodynamic mechanical seal of a nuclear reactor coolant pump, a three-dimensional model of the mechanical seal and the seal chamber is established based on the software Pro/E. The N-S equations and energy equation coupling with the k-ε turbulence model are solved based on ANSYS Fluent. The heat generation between the mechanical seal rings and the heat transfer distribution in the sealing chamber is studied. The fluid flow and temperature field of the mechanical seals is analyzed. The results show that the pressure distribution of the mechanical seals is divided into the high-pressure zone and the low-pressure zone by the sealing end face. The liquid film pressure in the mechanical seal end faces gradually decreases from the outer radius to the inner radius. The highest temperature appears at the sealing face, and the temperature decreases gradually away from the sealing face. The viscous heat in the liquid film is transferred away through the seal rings and the heat convection of the fluid flow in the sealing chamber. The pumping ring of the mechanical seal strengths the heat convection of the end faces.     

流体动压型核主泵机械密封腔内流动与传热研究

为研究某型号流体动压型核主泵机械密封流场和温度场的分布规律,使用Pro/E软件建立了机械密封环及密封腔的三维实体模型。采用k-ε湍流模型,基于ANSYS Fluent软件求解了纳维-斯托克斯（N-S）方程和能量方程。研究了密封环生热与密封腔散热的规律。分析了流体流动与温度变化趋势。结果表明:该型核主泵机械密封的压力以密封端面为界,分为高压区和低压区。在密封端面液膜压力由外径到内径逐渐降低。最高温度出现在密封端面处,由密封端面向外温度逐渐降低。液膜粘性剪切热通过密封环的热传导及腔内流体的对流换热作用而带走。机械密封的泵送环强化了端面热量的散失。      

过冷沸腾自然对流两相CFD模拟及应用

采用计算流体力学（CFD）方法,开展过冷沸腾自然对流两相模拟与应用研究。对侧壁加热圆柱水箱过冷沸腾自然对流实验采用两相CFD瞬态模拟,模拟时间为1 500 s,通过模型设置与模拟方法研究,再现了过冷沸腾发生后实验的温度阶跃,得到与实验较一致的温度分布、气泡产生时间与产生位置,确保了数值计算的合理性与准确性。在此基础上,对以欧洲ESBWR（经济简化沸水堆）非能动安全壳冷却系统（PCCS）为原型的ISP-42实验进行了两相CFD模拟,获得与实验一致的温度分布,确定采用两相CFD数值模拟对非能动安全壳冷却系统及非能动余热排出系统进行应用研究可行,为下一步计算传热系数、构建自然对流传热模型建立了良好基础。该项研究对工程应用中探寻非能动安全壳冷却系统及非能动余热排出系统的两相自然循环传热特性具有较大价值。     

Study of heat transfer by using DEM–CFD method in a randomly packed pebble-bed reactor

The pebble-bed reactor is one of the most promising designs for the nuclear energy industry. In this paper,a discrete element method-computational fluid dynamics(DEM-CFD) approach that includes thermal conduction, radiation, and natural convection mechanisms was proposed to simulate the thermal-fluid phenomena after the failure of forced circulation cooling system in a pebble-bed core. The whole large-scale packed bed was created using the DEM technique, and the calculated radial porosity of the bed was validated with empirical correlations reported by researchers. To reduce computational costs, a segment of the bed was extracted, which served as a good representative of the large-scale packed bed for CFD calculation. The temperature distributions simulated with two different fluids in this DEM-CFD approach were in good agreement with SANA experimental data. The influence of the natural convection mechanism on heat transfer must be taken into account for coolants with strong convective capacity. The proposed DEM-CFD methodology offers a computationally efficient and widely applied method for understanding the heat transfer process in a pebble-bed core. The method can also be easily extended to assess the passive safety features of newly designed fluoride-salt-cooled pebble-bed reactors.     

大型先进压水堆非能动冷却水箱关键热工水力特性研究综述

第3代大型先进压水堆设置非能动余热排出系统,包括大容积高位水箱及其内置的非能动余热排出热交换器(PRHR HX)和自动降压系统（ADS）喷洒器,在运行过程中呈现出复杂的气液两相热工水力现象和独特的传热、传质特性。近年来随着非能动安全系统工程需求和相关研究的兴起,国内外开展了一些针对大容积非能动冷却水箱及其内置关键部件热工水力特性的相关研究,本文对上述问题的研究现状进行综述。对于PRHR HX,评价特殊C型管束在单相自然对流、两相沸腾条件下的传热特性,分析经典传热模型及改进经验关联式的适用性;对于ADS 1~3级喷洒器高温高压蒸汽喷放冷凝过程,综合分析其喷放冷凝流型、特征参数、冷凝换热系数等关键传热、传质特性。以上研究大幅丰富了第3代大型先进压水堆大容积水箱的设计理论,并进行了实际工程应用。本文在此基础上,对相关研究未来发展方向进行展望。     

倾斜条件下强迫流动的传热特性研究

对倾斜条件下圆管内强迫流动的传热特性进行实验研究及数值分析。实验结果表明,对于单相流动,在浮力的作用下圆管内的传热呈现非对称状态;圆管上侧传热减弱,壁温升高,而圆管下侧传热增强,壁温降低。数值模拟的结果也是如此。以此为基础,提出引入倾斜条件下传热的修正因子,可以较好地预测倾斜条件下单相对流传热的变化幅度。对两相流动中的汽泡进行受力分析,揭示倾斜条件对两相传热影响不大的原因。     

竖直和水平圆管换热器在内热源液池内的两相换热特性

针对溶液堆整体模拟试验模型的结构尺寸和运行工况,建立了内热源液池内自然对流和鼓泡驱动同时作用下竖直和水平圆管换热器的两相流动和换热模型,进行了相应的数值模拟计算.数值计算得到不同加热强度和鼓泡流量下的对流换热性能,与相应试验结果进行了比较分析.利用相似理论和量纲分析,推导了内热源液池内两相流动换热的无因次准则关系式,根据数值计算结果总结出换热Nu数的经验关系式.最后,分析比较了竖直和水平圆管换热器的两相对流换热特性,为溶液堆内换热器设计和布置提供理论参考.     

格架对低流量对流传热影响的数值研究

针对带格架圆管在低流量高热流密度下的热工水力特性开展了数值研究。通过经验关联式与实验数据分别对光滑圆管内单相水低流量对流传热与格架效应进行标定,确立了基于SST k-ω模型的计算流体动力学（CFD）方法。模拟结果表明,格架下游传热特性取决于浮升力参数大小。强迫对流区与混合对流传热下降区,格架下游传热始终增强,努塞尔数呈指数衰减;混合对流传热恢复区与自然对流区,由于流场与传热的耦合作用,格架下游传热存在恶化现象,努塞尔数呈阻尼振荡。格架下游传热影响范围随着浮升力参数的增加先增大后减小。格架阻塞比越大,传热振荡越剧烈,格架致传热恶化的程度提高。该研究可为低流量堆芯内格架设计提供参考。      

Semi-Analytical Estimation of Gamma-Ray Intensity from a Volume Source

The effect of a magnetic field on laminar natural convection of liquid metal was studied experimentally using NaK as conducting fluid. The magnetic field was imposed horizontally and parallel to a uniformly heated vertical plate, to act perpendicularly across the convective flow. In a low magnetic field, the temperature profile across the layer of flowing fluid acquired an η-shaped profile characterized by a valley close to the wall and a peak further away, which had the effect of raising heat transfer rate above that obtained in the absence of magnetic field. When the magnetic field was intensified, its braking effect on the flow approached the temperature profile to the case of pure heat conduction through solid, to result in dwindling heat transfer rate.     

管道倾斜角度对超临界CO2管内换热特性的影响

在恒热流加热工况下,对超临界CO₂在不同倾角的微细圆管内混合对流换热进行了数值模拟。采用FLUENT软件分析了不同倾角时管内截面温度、轴向速度、二次流、上母线传热系数、周向壁面温度和Nu_w的变化规律,并引入相对二次流动能定量表示二次流强度。研究发现：倾斜管内顶部流体温度高于底部,周向Nu_w在底部高于顶部,速度分布不是中心对称且其峰值出现在管中心轴线下侧;浮升力引发的二次流先增大后减小,且在靠近入口处达到峰值;倾斜管内上母线温度高于下母线,上母线传热系数在拟临界温度附近达到峰值。通过水平管中浮升力判据,得到了浮升力对对流换热的影响规律。