A Novel Cross-layer Routing Protocol for Increasing Packet Transfer Reliability in Mobile Sensor Networks

In mobile sensor networks (MSNs), sensor data is generally transferred via mobile sensor nodes by multi-hop fashion. Because of the mobility of the nodes in the network, the efficient routing protocols are needed to ensure end-to-end route reliability while incurring minimal power consumption and packet delay. In this study, we developed a new routing protocol to meet these requirements for MSNs based on a cross-layer interaction among five reference layers (application, transport, network, MAC and physical). The proposed protocol primarily exploits the idea of interaction among these five layers all-in-one protocol. Its primary goals are (i) to discover the most reliable route in network, (ii) to sustain the route reliability and (iii) to be energy efficient and delay aware. It has been designed, modeled and simulated by using OPNET Modeler simulation software. The simulation results of the proposed protocol have been compared to three well known routing protocols (i.e., AODV, Leach-Mobile, CBR-Mobile). According to the obtained results, the proposed protocol outperforms its counterparts in terms of route reliability and end-to-end delay performances.     

Performance Analysis of Adaptive Routing Structure for Wireless Sensor Network Based on Load Balancing

Wireless sensor network consists of sensor nodes with battery operated device. The key challenges in the wireless sensor network are energy consumption and routing optimization. This work presents the cluster based load balancing (CBLB) routing protocol. The proposed routing protocol is used to minimize the energy consumption and increase the routing performance. It avoids the routing robustness, delay and increases the delivery rate and network performance. In existing techniques, different routing protocols such as LEACH, HEED and MESTER were used to increase the network performance and to decrease the energy consumption. But these existing techniques did not satisfy the performance requirements of wireless sensor networks. Hence, there is a requirement to develop a technique that meets the QoS requirements and needs of wireless sensor network. The proposed CBLB routing protocol creates a cluster head in the decentralized network and the cluster head will be used to distribute the workload evenly to the cluster members for reducing the energy consumption in wireless sensor network. Experimental results analyze the performance of the proposed protocol with the different existing protocols. The proposed protocol achieves high throughput, delivery rate and reduces the energy consumption, delay and routing overhead.     

Mobility-aware timeout medium access control protocol for wireless sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), has been under development for a while by the academia and industry. Due to limited computational power, a typical sensor node may experience operational challenges. Moreover, mobility has become an important feature since emergency and healthcare related applications are evolving in WSNs. Consideration of mobile nodes in WSNs introduce new challenges for the designers. In this paper, an enhanced version of T-MAC protocol (a well-known medium access control protocol in WSNs) known as MT-MAC is proposed. Using the capturing fluctuation in RSSI and LQI values of the received SYNC packets, MT-MAC solves high packet drop ratio in T-MAC. By detecting the mobility, a mobile node softly handover to a new virtual cluster without losing connection with other nodes. The performance of the proposed solution is then compared with T-MAC, S-MAC as well as other well-known mobility-aware MAC (MS-MAC) protocol. The simulation results show that the proposed protocol significantly increases the throughput and packet delivery ratio of T-MAC in exchange for a small increase in power consumption. Compared to MS-MAC protocol, the proposed approach can reduce power consumption by 20–65%, and achieve slightly higher packet delivery ratio.     

Actor-oriented directional anycast routing in wireless sensor and actor networks with smart antennas

Current routing protocols in wireless sensor and actor networks (WSANs) shows a lack of unification for different traffic patterns because the communication for sensor to actor and that for actor to actor are designed separately. Such a design poses a challenge for interoperability between sensors and actors. With the presence of rich-resource actor nodes, we argue that to improve network lifetime, the problem transforms from reducing overall network energy consumption to reducing energy consumption of constrained sensor nodes. To reduce energy consumption of sensor nodes, especially in challenging environments with coverage holes/obstacles, we propose that actor nodes should share forwarding tasks with sensor nodes. To enable such a feature, efficient interoperability between sensors and actors is required, and thus a unified routing protocol for both sensors and actors is needed. This paper explores capabilities of directional transmission with smart antennas and rich-resource actors to design a novel unified actor-oriented directional anycast routing protocol (ADA) which supports arbitrary traffic in WSANs. The proposed routing protocol exploits actors as main routing anchors as much as possible because they have better energy and computing power compared to constraint sensor nodes. In addition, a directional anycast routing approach is also proposed to further reduce total delay and energy consumption of overall network. Through extensive experiments, we show that ADA outperforms state-of-the-art protocols in terms of packet delivery latency, network lifetime, and packet reliability. In addition, by offer fault tolerant features, ADA also performs well in challenging environments where coverage holes and obstacles are of concerns.     

EOMR: An Energy-Efficient Optimal Multi-path Routing Protocol to Improve QoS in Wireless Sensor Network for IoT Applications

The wireless sensor network based IoT applications mainly suffers from end to end delay, loss of packets during transmission, reduced lifetime of sensor nodes due to loss of energy. To address these challenges, we need to design an efficient routing protocol that not only improves the network performance but also enhances the Quality of Service. In this paper, we design an energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless sensor network based IoT application having unfairness in the network with high traffic load. The proposed protocol considers three-factor to select the optimal path, i.e., lifetime, reliability, and the traffic intensity at the next-hop node. Rigorous simulation has been performed using NS-2. Also, the performance of the proposed protocol is compared with other contemporary protocols. The results show that the proposed protocol performs better concerning energy saving, packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and network lifetime compared to other protocols.

     

Energy‐efficient void avoidance geographic routing protocol for underwater sensor networks

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) consist of a group of sensors that send the information to the sonobuoys at the surface level. Void area, however, is one of the challenges faced by UWSNs. When a sensor falls in a void area of communication, it causes problems such as high latency, power consumption, or packet loss. In this paper, an energy‐efficient void avoidance geographic routing protocol (EVAGR) has been proposed to handle the void area with low amount of energy consumption. In this protocol, a suitable set of forwarding nodes is selected using a weight function, and the data packets are forwarded to the nodes inside the set. The weight function includes the consumed energy and the depth of the candidate neighboring nodes, and candidate neighboring node selection is based on the packet advancement of the neighboring nodes toward the sonobuoys. Extensive simulation experiments were performed to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed protocol. Simulation results revealed that the proposed protocol can effectively achieve better performance in terms of energy consumption, packet drop, and routing overhead compared with the similar routing protocol.     

A schedule‐based medium access control protocol for mobile wireless sensor networks

Recent advances in body area network technologies such as radio frequency identification and ham radio, to name a few, have introduced a huge gap between the use of current wireless sensor network technologies and specific needs of some important wireless sensor network applications such as medical care, disaster relief, or emergency preparedness and response. In these types of applications, the mobility of nodes can occur, leading to the challenge of mobility handling. In this paper, we address this challenge by prioritizing transmissions of mobile nodes over static nodes. This is achieved by using shorter contention windows in reservation slots for mobile nodes (the so‐called backoff technique) combined with a novel hybrid medium access control (MAC) protocol (the so‐called versatile MAC). The proposed protocol advocates channel reuse for bandwidth efficiency and management purpose. Through extensive simulations, our protocol is compared with other MAC alternatives such as time division multiple access and IEEE 802.11 with request to send/clear to send exchange, chosen as benchmarks. The performance metrics used are bandwidth utilization, fairness of medium access, and energy consumption. The superiority of versatile MAC against the studied benchmark protocols is established with respect to these metrics. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy Efficient QoS Aware Hierarchical KF-MAC Routing Protocol in Manet

The paper proposes an energy efficient quality of services (QoS) aware hierarchical KF-MAC routing protocol in mobile ad-hoc networks. The proposed KF-MAC (K-means cluster formation firefly cluster head selection based MAC routing) protocol reduces the concentration of QoS parameters when the node transmits data from source to destination. At first, K-means clustering technique is utilized for clustering the network into nodes. Then the clustered nodes are classified and optimized by the firefly optimization algorithm to find cluster heads for the clustered nodes. The transmission of data begins in the network nodes and TDMA based MAC routing does communication. The observation on KF-MAC protocol performs well for QoS parameters such as bandwidth, delay, bit error rate and jitter. The evaluation of proposed protocol based on a simulation study concludes that the proposed protocol provides a better result in contrast to the existing fuzzy based energy aware routing protocol and modified dynamic source routing protocol. With KF-MAC protocol, the collision free data transmission with low average energy consumption is achieved.     

Opportunistic routing with in-network aggregation for asynchronous duty-cycled wireless sensor networks

We propose an opportunistic routing protocol for wireless sensor networks designed to work on top of an asynchronous duty-cycled MAC. Opportunistic routing can be very effective when used with asynchronous duty-cycled MAC because expected waiting time of senders—when they stay on active mode and transmit packet streams—is significantly reduced. If there are multiple sources, energy consumption can be reduced further through in-network aggregation. The idea proposed in this paper is to temporarily increase duty cycle ratio of nodes holding packets, in order to increase chance of in-network aggregation and thus reduce energy consumption and extend network lifetime. In the proposed protocol called opportunistic routing with in-network aggregation (ORIA), whenever a node generates a packet or receives a packet to forward, it waits for a certain amount of time before transmitting the packet. Meanwhile, the node increases its duty cycle ratio, hoping that it receives packets from other nodes and aggregate them into a single packet. Simulation results show that ORIA saves considerable amount of energy compared to general opportunistic routing protocols, as well as tree-based protocols.     

ARMS-EGR—Adaptive ranking and mobile sink-enabled energy-efficient geographic routing protocol in flying ad hoc networks

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become widespread because of their involvement in a variety of applications. The task of designing the energy-efficient routing between UAVs has been considered a matter of great interest due to the inherent challenges of controlling the dynamics exhibited by UAVs. Energy limitations are considered the main limitations of UAVs. This research paper proposes a novel routing protocol, adaptive ranking and mobile sink (MS)-enabled energy-efficient geographic routing (ARMS-EGR) for flying ad hoc networks. In ARMS-EGR, the whole network is partitioned into cells. The cell contains cell members (CM) and cell heads (CHs). The CH works as a cluster head. Additionally, two MSs have been used to collect data captured by CM. Multihop communication on the network leads to an increase in traffic and consumes the energy of the UAVs located near the base station (BS). MSs are used for power distribution and load balancing across the network. Adaptive ranking of forwarder UAVs and CHs is performed during intracell and intercell multihop communication, respectively, using adaptive ranking. A cell with one-hop communication can directly send packets to the MS, but the ARMS-EGR routing protocol has been proposed for multihop communication. The proposed approach is simulated in NS-2.35 software. The results show that end-to-end latency and power consumption during packet transmission are greatly minimized. ARMS-EGR also demonstrates improvements in message success rates, number of alive nodes, and packet delivery ratio, making ARMS-EGR particularly suitable for flying ad hoc networks (FANETs).     

Clustering Based Two Dimensional Motion of Sink Node in Wireless Sensor Networks

The wireless sensor network (WSN) is always known for its limited-energy issues and finding a good solution for energy minimization in WSNs is still a concern for researchers. Implementing mobility to the sink node is used widely for energy conservation or minimization in WSNs which reduces the distance between sink and communicating nodes. In this paper, with the intention to conserve energy from the sensor nodes, we designed a clustering based routing protocol implementing a mobile sink called ‘two dimensional motion of sink node (TDMS)’. In TDMS, each normal sensor node collects data and send it to their respective leader node called cluster head (CH). The sink moves in the two dimensional direction to collect final data from all CH nodes, particularly it moves in the direction to that CH which has the minimum remaining energy. The proposed protocol is validated through rigorous simulation using MATLAB and comparisons have been made with WSN’s existing static sink and mobile sink routing protocols over two different geographical square dimensions of the network. Here, we found that TDMS model gives the optimal result on energy dissipation per round and increased network lifetime.

     

Improving protocol robustness in ad hoc networks through cooperative packet caching and shortest multipath routing

A mobile ad hoc network is an autonomous system of infrastructure-less, multihop, wireless mobile nodes. Reactive routing protocols perform well in this environment due to their ability to cope quickly against topological changes. This paper proposes a new routing protocol named CHAMP (caching and multiple path) routing protocol. CHAMP uses cooperative packet caching and shortest multipath routing to reduce packet loss due to frequent route failures. We show through extensive simulation results that these two techniques yield significant improvement in terms of packet delivery, end-to-end delay and routing overhead. We also show that existing protocol optimizations employed to reduce packet loss due to frequent route failures, namely local repair in AODV and packet salvaging in DSR, are not effective at high mobility rates and high network traffic.     

Multipath Security Aware Routing Protocol for MANET Based on Trust Enhanced Cluster Mechanism for Lossless Multimedia Data Transfer

The dynamic nature of mobile nodes of ad hoc network is mostly affected by security problems which reduce data forwarding rate in multimedia sources. Due to the rapid growth of wireless applications, the different multitalented routing protocols are proposed in recent years. But the recent protocols are not efficient for multimedia applications, till now, specific security aware routing protocols are not proposed for multimedia data transfers. In this paper, we proposed trust enhanced cluster based multipath routing (TECM) algorithm. We use energy efficient PSO algorithm used to create cluster formation and cluster head, super cluster head are selected from trust values, which compute form proposed TECM algorithm. The multi trust factors are used for trust computation, such as frame/packet loss ratio, frame/packet forward energy, frame/packet receiving energy, routing overhead, received signal strength, frame/packet forward rate, average forward delay and protocol deviation flag. We then combine proposed TECM algorithm with standard multipath OLSR protocol (TECM-OLSR) to analyze the performance of proposed algorithm. The simulated results show that proposed TECM-OLSR protocol is very effective in terms of loss and delivery rate, delay, routing overhead and network lifetime compare to FPNT-OLSR.     

Signal power random fading based interference-aware routing for wireless sensor networks

Power loss and interference coexist in wireless transmissions where random uncertainty is aggravated due to the mobility of sensor nodes. A probability interference model was proposed, based on the physical model and random fading of the received signal power, to depict the uncertainty of wireless interference. In addition, an interference-aware routing metric was designed, in which interference, routing convergence and residual energies of nodes were integrated. Furthermore, an interference-aware probabilistic routing algorithm was proposed for mobile wireless sensor networks, and its correctness and time and space complexities were proved. The NS-2 simulation experiments showed that the proposed algorithm can achieve higher packet delivery ratio than Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing in various cases like the pause time and maximum moving speed. Simultaneously, the energy consumption of a packet and average delay were taken into consideration to better meet the needs of mobile scenarios with higher reliability.     

Aggregated traffic flow weight controlled hierarchical MAC protocol for wireless sensor networks

It has been discussed in the literature that the medium-access control (MAC) protocols, which schedule periodic sleep–active states of sensor nodes, can increase the longevity of sensor networks. However, these protocols suffer from very low end-to-end throughput and increased end-to-end packet delay. How to design an energy-efficient MAC protocol that greatly minimizes the packet delay while maximizing the achievable data delivery rate, however, remains unanswered. In this paper, motivated by the many-to-one multihop traffic pattern of sensor networks and the heterogeneity in required data packet rates of different events, we propose an aggregated traffic flow weight controlled hierarchical MAC protocol (ATW-HMAC). We find that ATW-HMAC significantly decreases the packet losses due to collisions and buffer drops (i.e., mitigates the congestion), which helps to improve network throughput, energy efficiency, and end-to-end packet delay. ATW-HMAC is designed to work with both single-path and multipath routing. Our analytical analysis shows that ATW-HMAC provides weighted fair rate allocation and energy efficiency. The results of our extensive simulation, done in ns-2.30, show that ATW-HMAC outperforms S-MAC; traffic-adaptive medium access; and SC-HMAC.     

Hybrid routing and load balancing protocol for wireless sensor network

In wireless sensor network, when the nodes are mobile, the network structure keeps on changing dynamically, that is, new nodes enter the network and old members exit the network. As a result, the path from one node to the other varies from time to time. In addition, if the load on a particular part of the network is high, then the nodes will not be capable of transmitting the data. Thus, data delivery at the destination will be unsuccessful. Moreover, the part of the network involved in transmitting the data should not be overloaded. To overcome these issues, a hybrid routing protocol and load balancing technique is discussed in this paper for the mobile data collectors in which the path from source to destination is ensured before data transmission. The hybrid routing protocol that combines the reactive and proactive approach is used to enhance gradient based routing protocol for low power and lossy networks. This protocol can efficiently handle the movement of multiple sinks. Finally, load balancing is applied over the multiple mobile elements to balance the load of sensor nodes. Simulation results show that this protocol can increase the packet delivery ratio and residual energy with reduced delay and packet drop.     

Collision Free Mobility Adaptive (CFMA) MAC for wireless sensor networks

In this paper we propose high throughput collision free, mobility adaptive and energy efficient medium access protocol (MAC) called Collision Free Mobility Adaptive (CFMA) for wireless sensor networks. CFMA ensures that transmissions incur no collisions, and allows nodes to undergo sleep mode whenever they are not transmitting or receiving. It uses delay allocation scheme based on traffic priority at each node and avoids allocating same backoff delay for more than one node unless they are in separate clusters. It also allows nodes to determine when they can switch to sleep mode during operation. CFMA for mobile nodes provides fast association between the mobile node and the cluster coordinator. The proposed MAC performs well in both static and mobile scenarios, which shows its significance over existing MAC protocols proposed for mobile applications. The performance of CFMA is evaluated through extensive simulation, analysis and comparison with other mobility aware MAC protocols. The results show that CFMA outperforms significantly the existing CSMA/CA, Sensor Mac (S-MAC), Mobile MAC (MOB-MAC), Adaptive Mobility MAC (AM-MAC), Mobility Sensor MAC (MS-MAC), Mobility aware Delay sensitive MAC (MD-MAC) and Dynamic Sensor MAC (DS-MAC) protocols including throughput, latency and energy consumption.     

A quadtree-based hierarchical data dissemination for mobile sensor networks

The envisioned sensor network architecture where some of the nodes may be mobile poses several new challenges to this special type of ad hoc wireless network. Recently, researchers have proposed several data dissemination protocols based on either some hierarchical structure mainly constructed by a source node or source/sink oriented dissemination tree to support mobile sinks. However, such a source-initiated hierarchical structure results in significant resource consumption as the number of source-sink pairs are increased. Additionally, stimulus mobility aggravates the situation, where several sources may build a separate data forwarding hierarchy along the stimulus moving path. In this paper, we propose a new data dissemination protocol that exploits “Quadtree-based network space partitioning” to provide more efficient routing among multiple mobile stimuli and sink nodes. A common hierarchy of cluster-head nodes is constructed where the data delivery to mobile sinks is independent of the current position of mobile stimuli. Therefore, the overhead needed for hierarchy (route) maintenance is lower. Simulation results show that our work significantly reduces average energy consumption while maintaining comparably higher data delivery ratio.     

节点密集型传感器网络中路由算法的研究

传感器网络的路由协议越来越引起人们的关注。针对节点高密度部署并且存在部分移动节点的网络环境,当前常用的各类路由算法都不能有效地降低能耗。论文提出了改进型GAF算法,将网络划分成若干个单元格,不同移动速度的节点以不同的权重竞选簇头,竞选失败者将进入休眠状态,以此来降低网络总能耗。通过分析和仿真,验证了该算法在节能方面的优势。     

Fuzzy Logic Based Distance and Energy-Aware Routing Protocol in Delay-Tolerant Mobile Sensor Networks

In challenged networks such as Wireless Sensor Networks, limitations such as nodes mobility, short radio range and sparse network density can prevent communications among nodes. Consequently, it can result in long delays in exchanging messages among nodes. Designing Delay-Tolerant Networks is considered to be an approach for dealing with lengthy breakdown of communication between nodes. Using multi-replica methods seems rational for these networks. However, a majority of these methods inject a large amount of replications of a message in the network so as to enhance message delivery probability which consequently leads to the loss of energy and reduction of network efficiency. Two major issues should be considered to achieve data delivery in such challenging networking environments: a routing strategy for the network and a buffer management policy. This study proposes a new routing protocol called Fuzzy-Logic based Distance and Energy Aware Routing protocol (FLDEAR) in delay tolerant mobile sensor network. A FLDEAR is a distance and energy aware protocol that reduces the number of message replications and uses two fuzzy inference systems in routing and buffer management. The results of conducted simulations indicated that this routing algorithm can be used for enhancing data packet delivery ratios and reducing data transmission overhead than several current Delay-Tolerant Mobile Sensor Networks routing protocols.