Democracy and the governance of uncertainty. The case of agricultural gene technologies

The use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agriculture and food production is the object of an intense and divisive debate. Drawing on a study on the public perception of agricultural gene technologies carried out in five European countries, the article deals with the policy aspects of the issue, and more precisely on the relation between institutions, experts and the public in a context of deep uncertainty. A theoretical framework is developed and compared with the study findings, suggesting that issues like the GMOs one represent a strong case for a more participatory policy-making. My conclusions suggest a style of governance based on the principles of deliberative democracy, as a suitable approach to the confrontation of different viewpoints and forms of knowledge. This appears to be the best way to improve the overall quality of policy-making: in this I include its legitimacy, the degree of public trust, and also the actual quality of its products. Strengthening the role of the public sphere seems more effective than simply increasing direct decision-making by the populace, and it offers an alternative to the 'elitist' solutions to the crisis of representative democracy.     

Controversy over genetically modified organisms: the governing laws and regulations.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are increasingly becoming a topic of controversy in the U.S. and abroad. The public is questioning their safety and wanting the products labeled as genetically modified. There are other concerns from some of the scientific world and some government officials and organizations such as the Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO) that question whether adequate research has been done to qualify GMOs as safe for long-term use. Of particular concern are the allergenic properties, a GMO may impart, possible transfer effects of antibiotic resistance (given that antibiotic resistant marker genes are used for many GMOs), the expression of previously unexpressed traits, and the drift of pollen from genetically modified crops. It has also been noted that the laws and regulations governing the biotechnology world are outdated, are not comprehensive, and span too many agencies. The primary agencies currently regulating biotechnology are the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).     

Selective critique of risk assessments with recommendations for improving methodology and practise

Risk assessments are often criticised for defending activities that could harm the environment and human health. The risk assessments produce numbers which are used to prove that the risk associated with the activity is acceptable. In this way, risk assessments seem to be a tool generally serving business. Government agencies have based their regulations on the use of risk assessment and the prevailing practise is supported by the regulations. In this paper, we look more closely into this critique. Are risk assessments being misused or are risk assessments simply not a suitable tool for guiding decision-making in the face of risks and uncertainties? Is the use of risk assessments not servicing public interests? We argue that risk assessments may provide useful decision support but the quality of the risk assessments and the associated risk assessment processes need to be improved. In this paper, three main improvement areas (success factors) are identified and discussed: (1) the scientific basis of the risk assessments needs to be strengthened, (2) the risk assessments need to provide a much broader risk picture than what is typically the case today. Separate uncertainty analyses should be carried out, extending the traditional probabilistic-based analyses and (3) the cautionary and precautionary principles need to be seen as rational risk management approaches, and their application would, to a large extent, be based on risk and uncertainty assessments.     

Assessing insularity in global science

Most scientific research has some form of local geographical bias. This could be caused by researchers addressing a geographically localized issue, working within a nationally or regionally defined research network, or responding to research agendas that are influenced by national policy. These influences should be reflected in citation behavior, e.g., more citations than expected by chance of papers by scientists from institutions within the same country. Thus, assessing adjusted levels of national self-citation may give insights into the extent to which national research agendas and scientific cultures influence the behavior of scientists. Here we develop a simple metric of scientific insularism based on rates of national self citation corrected for total scientific output. Based on recent publications (1996?C2010), higher than average levels of insularism are associated with geographically large rapidly developing nations (Brazil, Russia, India, and China??the so-called BRIC nations), and countries with strongly ideological political regimes (Iran). Moreover, there is a significant negative correlation between insularism and the average number of citations at the national level. Based on these data we argue that insularism (higher than average levels of national self-citation) may reflect scientific cultures whose priorities and focus are less tightly linked to global scientific norms and agendas. We argue that reducing such insularity is an overlooked challenge that requires policy changes at multiple levels of science education and governance.     

Quantitation of transgenic Bt event-176 maize using double quantitative competitive polymerase chain reaction and capillary gel electrophoresis laser-induced fluorescence

In this work, a new procedure useful to quantitatively analyze genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in foods is described and applied to analyze transgenic Bt Event-176 maize. The method developed consists of coamplifications of specific DNA maize sequences with internal standards using quantitative competitive PCR (QC-PCR). The QC-PCR products are quantitatively analyzed using a capillary gel electrophoresis (CGE) with laser-induced fluorescence detection (LIF) method developed at our laboratory that utilizes a physically adsorbed coating. The CGE-LIF procedure allows the use of internal standards differing by only 10 bp from the original target fragments, to our knowledge, the smallest size difference that can be found in the bibliography for QC-PCR of GMOs. A spectrofluorometric procedure using ROX reference dye is proposed to solve calibration problems of input DNA concentration. It is demonstrated that the use of ROX drastically enhances the accuracy of the quantitative analysis by QC-PCR. Reproducibility of analysis times and corrected peak areas (measured as target/competitor PCR products ratio) for the CGE-LIF separations are determined to be better than 0.91 and 1.93% (RSD, n = 15) respectively, for three different days. It is shown that CGE-LIF provides better resolution and a signal/noise ratio improvement of approximately 700-fold compared to slab gel electrophoresis. The good possibilities in terms of quantitative analysis of GMOs provided by this new method are confirmed by determining the Bt Event-176 maize content in certified reference maize powder and food samples of known composition. This procedure opens the possibility for accurate quantitation of multiple GMOs in a single run.     

Owl meets beehive: how impact assessment and governance relate

This article analyses the complex relationship between impact assessments (IAs) of all types (such as comprehensive, regulatory, economic, social or environmental IAs) and their governance environment, using an analytical framework based on the concepts of governance styles and metagovernance. It is argued that each governance system builds on specific values, traditions and history and produces specific mixtures of hierarchical, network and market styles of governance (with or without an explicit metagovernance approach). Although governance can be considered as a non-normative perspective on polity and politics, the normative dimension of governance practice results in, for example, conflicting convictions about which type of knowledge or ‘evidence’ is valid for IA processes. This is particularly relevant because IAs have an important role in improving the knowledge base of governance. The concrete governance system in a specific country or other administrative entity influences the design and governance of IA systems positively or negatively, which leads to a variety of challenges. The conclusion is drawn that understanding the governance context and its dynamics can help improving IA governance.     

A macro study of self-citation

This study investigates the role of self-citation in the scientific production of Norway (1981-1996). More than 45,000 publications have been analysed. Using a three-year citation window we find that 36% of all citations represent author self-citations. However, this percentage is decreasing when citations are traced for longer periods. We find the highest share of self-citation among the least cited papers. There is a strong positive correlation between the number of self-citations and the number of authors of the publications. Still, only a minor part of the overall increase in citation rates that can be found for multi-authored papers is due to self-citations. Also, the share of self-citation shows significant variations among different scientific disciplines. The results are relevant for the discussion concerning use of citation indicators in research assessments. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

基于文化生态视域的阿尔瓦·阿尔托设计思想与方法

目的从文化生态视角研究现代主义设计大师阿尔瓦·阿尔托的设计理念,探索文化生态对设计领域的影响。在此基础上,总结阿尔托那蕴含文化内涵的设计思想与方法,为当代中国设计领域的文化传承与设计创新提供有价值的参考,同时为避免设计造型趋同现象泛滥提供有效的解决思路。方法运用文化生态领域的概念和特性解读阿尔托经久不衰的设计理念,将其归纳为文化诉求设计方法与仿生设计方法,并结合设计案例进一步从文化内涵和生命通感等方面进行深入梳理、分析和诠释。结论文化生态是阿尔托设计思想内核,他既传承"师承自然"的传统文化观念,又从情感化方面着手,从现代主义设计思想层面进行改革创新,因此他的设计更具有文化性、情感性和可用性。     

Ethics in cybersecurity research and practice

This paper critiques existing governance in cyber-security ethics through providing an overview of some of the ethical issues facing researchers in the cybersecurity community and highlighting shortfalls in governance practice. We separate these issues into those facing the academic research community and those facing the (corporate) practitioner community, drawing on two case studies. While there is overlap between these communities, there are also stark differences. Academic researchers can often rely on research ethics boards (REBs) to provide ethical oversight and governance which are typically unavailable to the practitioner community. However, we argue that even within the academic community the constitution of REBs is such that they may be (and in some cases at least are) unable to offer sound advice. Our recommendations are that ethics should be taught in far greater depth on computer science courses than is currently the case, and that codes of conduct should be developed and deployed provided they can be seen to be effective. In tandem with these, an active discussion regarding the ethics of cybersecurity and cybersecurity research is urgently needed.     

Capital Structure of Foreign Direct Investments: A Transaction Cost Analysis

Transaction cost theory (TCT) plays a major role in theorizing about the boundaries of the multinational enterprise (MNE), and is increasingly being applied to intra-MNE governance. We apply TCT to capital structure decisions for MNE subsidiaries. According to TCT, equity and debt are not just financial instruments, but alternative governance structures. Equity is useful for projects involving specific assets that do not serve well as collateral, and for knowledge intensive activities where information asymmetry and public good issues make external financing more costly. We study under what conditions MNE headquarters may wish to partially re-introduce market mechanisms inside the MNE through the use of external or internal debt to finance subsidiaries. This can allow economizing on governance costs and strengthen subsidiary manager incentives, but may be inappropriate if subsidiary assets are MNE-specific or subsidiary-specific. Empirically testable propositions are developed.     

Bulk acoustic wave affinity biosensor for genetically modified organisms detection

Bulk acoustic waves have been applied as affinity sensors. In particular, a nucleic acid sensor for hybridization studies has been developed and applied for detecting DNA target sequences in solution. A DNA probe is immobilized on the sensor surface while the target sequence is free in solution; the interaction between the two complementary strands (hybridization) is followed in real-time, without the use of any label. The system has been applied to analytical problems, i.e., genetically modified organisms (GMOs) detection. The probe was complementary to characteristic DNA sequences present in GMOs. The probe sequences were internal to the sequence of 35S promoter and Nos terminator that are inserted sequences in the genome of the GMO regulating the transgene expression. Two different probe immobilization procedures were characterized to improve the performances of a piezoelectric crystal DNA sensor for GMOs detection: 1) thiol-dextran-streptavidin-biotin procedure and 2) thiol-derivatized probe and blocking thiol procedure. The system has been optimized using synthetic oligonucleotides. The probe immobilization step was monitored by a surface plasmon resonance system.     

The impact of the national assessment exercises on self-citation rate and publication venue: an empirical investigation on the engineering academic sector in Italy

Thelwall (J Informetr 11(1):128–151, 2017a.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2016.12.002; Web indicators for research evaluation: a practical guide. Morgan and Claypool, London, 2017b) proposed a new family of field- and time-normalized indicators, which is intended for sparse data. These indicators are based on units of analysis (e.g., institutions) rather than on the paper level. They compare the proportion of mentioned papers (e.g., on Twitter) of a unit with the proportion of mentioned papers in the corresponding fields and publication years. We propose a new indicator (Mantel–Haenszel quotient, MHq) for the indicator family. The MHq is rooted in the Mantel–Haenszel (MH) analysis. This analysis is an established method, which can be used to pool the data from several 2?×?2 cross tables based on different subgroups. We investigate using citations and assessments by peers whether the indicator family can distinguish between quality levels defined by the assessments of peers. Thus, we test the convergent validity. We find that the MHq is able to distinguish between quality levels in most cases while other indicators of the family are not. Since our study approves the MHq as a convergent valid indicator, we apply the MHq to four different Twitter groups as defined by the company Altmetric. Our results show that there is a weak relationship between the Twitter counts of all four Twitter groups and scientific quality, much weaker than between citations and scientific quality. Therefore, our results discourage the use of Twitter counts in research evaluation.     

Women in STEM networks: who seeks advice and support from women scientists?

Supporting and advancing women’s science careers continues to be of interest to researchers, scientists, science funders, and universities. Similarly, professional advice and support networks are important to understanding the advancement of scientific careers. This research aims to marry these two lines of research to investigate and compare the ways in which men and women scientists seek advice and support from women in their networks. Using a sample of academic scientists in nonmedical biology, chemistry, computer science, earth and atmospheric sciences, electrical engineering, and physics we assess the extent to which women and men scientists seek advice and support from women in their networks. We find that field of science is the primary predictor for the presence of women in scientists’ advice and support networks. We also find that citizenship, rank, age, and friendship are significantly related to the proportion of women in women’s networks, but are not consistently significantly related to the proportion of women in men’s networks. We conclude with a discussion of the findings and the distinctions between men and women scientists’ advice and support networks.     

A multidimensional approach to academic productivity

This study represents one of the first attempts to use empirical analysis to estimate academic productivity complex and proves the thesis that academic productivity is a function of multidimensional combination of the work of academic researchers: the scientific work, education, and external relationships. Given the complexity of academic productivity, it is necessary to clarify that it is divided into scientific productivity of the first type (scientific publications); scientific productivity of the second type (awards and academic positions); productivity in terms of external relationships (or external advice); and educational productivity. This objective of this paper is achieved through a sample survey (2,738 academics responded) conducted by Italian researchers from the PIR research project. The results obtained, however (as a case of estimates obtained using the results of a sample survey), are the result of a working reality that Italian academics are flooded by a myriad of activities that are not always consistent with the primary aims of the work of a researcher with an organisational and environmental well-being at the limit of iper productivity (or hyper productivity). The overall productivity (academic productivity) is significantly correlated with the four dimensions: average annual scientific productivity of the first type, average annual scientific productivity of the second type, the productivity external advice and, lastly, teaching productivity. The estimate of the sizes for the four indicators of productivity are the result of a literature search of the primary techniques used to assess productivity in academia. By comparing the most significant indicators, we managed to select all of the technical aspects missing in the Italian system of evaluation. This process allowed for us to add additional variables characterising the various aspects of productivity and prove the validity of our theory about the multidimensionality of academic productivity.     

Relative age of references as a tool to identify emerging research fields with an application to the field of ecology and environmental sciences

Emerging scientific fields are commonly identified by different citation based bibliometric parameters. However, their main shortcoming is the existence of a time lag needed for a publication to receive citations. In the present study, we assessed the relationship between the age of references in scientific publications and the change in publication rate within a research field. Two indices based on the age of references are presented, the relative age of references and the ratio of references published during the preceding 2 years, and applied thereafter on four datasets from the previously published studies, which assessed eutrophication research, sturgeon research, fisheries research, and the general field of ecology. We observed a consistent pattern that the emerging research topics had a lower median age of references and a higher ratio of references published in the preceding 2 years than their respective general research fields. The main advantage of indices based on the age of references is that they are not influenced by a time lag, and as such they are able to provide insight into current scientific trends. The best potential of the presented indices is to use them combined with other approaches, as each one can reveal different aspects and properties of the assessed data, and provide validation of the obtained results. Their use should be however assessed further before they are employed as standard tools by scientists, science managers and policy makers.     

公司治理视角下基于VPRS的公司经营困境预警

从公司治理的角度,构建了一套比较全面的综合预警指标体系。以2006-2009年首次被ST的160家上市公司及其配对公司作为研究样本,基于变精度粗糙集理论(VPRS),分别构建仅包含财务指标和包含所有指标的上市公司经营困境预警模型。通过理论分析和实证研究发现:健康公司和困境公司在早期的公司治理方面就存在着显著差异,晚期差异逐渐减小;加入公司治理变量后的变精度粗糙集模型的预测精度得到了提高;仅包含财务数据的模型在经营困境的晚期预测精度较高,早期预测效果不佳;对早期预测来说,包含财务指标和公司治理指标等多方面因素的模型更加适合。     

Exploratory search of academic publication and citation data using interactive tag cloud visualizations

The number of authors from different countries have recently increased in ecology papers, but the international collaboration among ecologists does not occur in an idiosyncratic way. In this paper, we quantified the level of international collaboration in ecology papers and the influence of geographic distance and socioeconomic factors on collaboration between countries. We obtained all papers from Thomson-ISI, classified as subject ecology between years 2000 and 2014 (total of 62,667 papers with international collaboration in 179 countries). The gravity model (binomial negative model) indicated that the level of international collaboration is moderate spatially structured, decreasing as the geographical distance among countries increase. Moreover, the geographic distance and socioeconomic factors explained 10% of the scientific collaboration among countries (Pseudo R ² = 0.10). Highly collaborative countries were found in similar trade blocs, with similar Human Development Index, similar scientific structure (i.e., number of citation per documents) and tended to be geographically close. Thus, international collaboration will continue increasing, and young ecologists will experience international collaboration, even with distant countries (both geographical and socioeconomic).     

From Science to Fashion: Photography and the Production of a Surrogate Colony in Weimar Germany

This article examines German colonial cultures in the post-World War I period following Germany’s loss of a colonial empire. Photography had long been embedded in both the practical and ideological production of empire, but after 1918 took on an especially significant role in constructing a ‘surrogate colony’ that kept the colonial idea alive in the absence of direct colonial rule. The dynamics of this surrogate colony are especially evident in the publications of the organised colonial movement. Drawing on these publications, I argue that the colonial movement produced a surrogate colony that was as much about the management of gendered and racialised German populations as it was about propagandising for a return to colonial rule. Photography played a key role in bringing together two areas that underlay this gendered and racialised dynamic: science and commercial culture. I thus begin by tracing the way in which photographic scientific cultures, in particular in the fields of medicine, anthropology, and racial science, shaped the contours of the surrogate colony. These scientific cultures emerged in an unstable relationship with mass commercial photographic cultures, with the article then turning to an exploration of ‘colonial fashion photography’. The foregrounding of clothing and bodies in this photography highlights the complex relationship between scientific and commercial photography, which is shown to be deeply implicated in the production of racialised and gendered forms of embodiment.     

Advanced bibliometric methods as quantitative core of peer review based evaluation and foresight exercises

This paper gives an overview of the potentials and limitations of bibliometric methods for the assessment of strengths and weaknesses in research performance, and for monitoring scientific developments. We distinguish two different methods. In the first application, research performance assessment, the bibliometric method is based on advanced analysis of publication and citation data. We show that the resulting indicators are very useful, and in fact an indispensable element next to peer review in research evaluation procedures. Indicators based on advanced bibliometric methods offer much more than only numbers. They provide insight into the position of actors at the research front in terms of influence and specializations, as well as into patterns of scientific communication and processes of knowledge dissemination. After a discussion of technical and methodological problems, we present practical examples of the use of research performance indicators. In the second application, monitoring scientific developments, bibliometric methods based on advanced mapping techniques are essential. We discuss these techniques briefly and indicate their most important potentials, particularly their role in foresight exercises. Finally, we give a first outline of how both bibliometric approaches can be combined to a broader and powerful methodology to observe scientific advancement and the role of actors.     

'Worst case' methodology for the initial assessment of societal risk from proposed major accident installations

This paper considers the application of one of the weighted risk indicators used by the Major Hazards Assessment Unit (MHAU) of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) in formulating advice to local planning authorities on the siting of new major accident hazard installations. In such cases the primary consideration is to ensure that the proposed installation would not be incompatible with existing developments in the vicinity, as identified by the categorisation of the existing developments and the estimation of individual risk values at those developments. In addition a simple methodology, described here, based on MHAU's "Risk Integral" and a single "worst case" even analysis, is used to enable the societal risk aspects of the hazardous installation to be considered at an early stage of the proposal, and to determine the degree of analysis that will be necessary to enable HSE to give appropriate advice.