Preferred stimulation levels in introverts and extroverts: Effects on arousal and performance.

In 2 experiments, 70 extraverted and 70 introverted (Edwards Preference Inventory) males either chose the level of intensity of noise to be heard during a paired-associates (PA) learning task or were assigned noise at a given level of intensity. In both experiments, extraverts chose more intense noise levels than introverts. Extraverts and introverts were equal in psychophysiological arousal when stimulated with noise of an intensity chosen by either themselves or yoked members of the same personality classification. Introverts were found to be more aroused than extraverts when compared at the same intensity, regardless of whether the intensity was one preferred by extraverts or one preferred by introverts. At very high and very low levels of intensity of noise stimulation, introverts and extraverts were equally aroused in the 2nd experiment. In both experiments, PA learning was best among introverts and extraverts who were stimulated at a level of intensity chosen by themselves or members of the same personality classification. Results are discussed in terms of Yerkes-Dodson Law and its relation to extraversion–introversion. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Multilevel Examination of the Relationships Among Training Outcomes, Mediating Regulatory Processes, and Adaptive Performance.

This study examined whether cognitive, affective-motivational, and behavioral training outcomes relate to posttraining regulatory processes and adaptive performance similarly at the individual and team levels of analysis. Longitudinal data were collected from 156 individuals composing 78 teams who were trained on and then performed a simulated flight task. Results showed that posttraining regulation processes related similarly to adaptive performance across levels. Also, regulation processes fully mediated the influences of self- and collective efficacy beliefs on individual and team adaptive performance. Finally, knowledge and skill more strongly and directly related to adaptive performance at the individual than the team level of analysis. Implications to theory and practice, limitations, and future directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subjective effects of caffeine among introverts and extraverts in the morning and evening.

In previous studies of psychomotor performance, the stimulant effects of caffeine differed by personality characteristics. For example, caffeine improved the task performance of extraverts but overaroused introverts and thus impaired their performance. The present study compared the effects of caffeine on subjective arousal among introverts and extraverts. Seventeen introverts and 19 extraverts drank coffee that contained doses of 0, 2, and 4 mg/kg caffeine during morning and evening sessions in a within-subjects, randomized, double-blind, crossover design. At 30-min intervals for 180 min after drinking, participants completed the Profile of Mood States, a battery of self-report visual analog scales, and the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST). Caffeine effects on mood and task performance did not significantly interact with extraversion, except for nonsignificant trends for caffeine to increase happiness and vigor more among extraverts than introverts. No 3-way interactions of group, time, and dose were found on any scales or on the DSST. Results do not support the hypothesis that caffeine differentially affects extraverts and introverts, particularly at different times of the day. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring relationships among anger, perceived organizational support, and workplace outcomes.

The present study examines anger within a perceived organizational support (POS) theory framework. Using structural equation modeling, the authors explored relationships among POS, anger, and workplace outcomes in a sample of 1,136 employees in 21 stores of a U.S. retail organization. At both individual and store levels, low POS was directly associated with greater anger. At the individual level, anger partially mediated relationships among low POS and turnover intentions, absences, and accidents on the job. Anger had direct and indirect effects on alcohol consumption and health-related risk taking. At the store level, anger had direct negative effects on inventory loss and turnover. The authors interpret these findings in light of social exchange theory and emotion regulation theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Qualitative analysis of the performance of introverts and extraverts on Standard Progressive Matrices

The present study was designed to bring out the differences between extraverts and introverts on Standard Progressive Matrices. A group of 100 subjects of equal number of sexes were given a qualitative analysis of their performance on SPM. The study brought out the initial superiority of extraverts over introverts. But with passage of time and increase in difficulty level the introverts did significantly better as shown both by the t-ratios and the F-ratios. Personality interacted with sex to yield differences in performance of wrong scores only. These findings were discussed in terms of arousal, cortical excitation and reactive inhibition.     

Frequency perception of individual and group successes as a function of competition, coaction, and isolation

The frequency perception of successful and unsuccessful outcomes obtained in serial tasks was investigated in two experiments. Subjects were assigned to serial tasks in which the outcome stimuli ("right" and "wrong") immediately followed subjects' responses to each task item. Subjects' perceptual judgment about the number of "rights and wrongs" obtained was requested at the end of the serial task (incidental event perception). In Experiment 1, subjects performing in groups of four were compared with individual performers both in competing and noncompeting (coacting) conditions. In Experiment 2, the influence of verbal communication and competition versus isolation was examined. Significant and predicted differences in frequeency perception were found (a) in group performers as compared with individual performers, (b) in groups with verbal communication as compared with groups without verbal communication, and (c) in competing groups as compared with noncompeting, especially isolated, groups. The frequency perception of success is discussed in the context of impression formation processes, and its impact on person perception and learning is mentioned. A tentative explanation in terms of affective and cognitive processes related to social interaction is submitted.     

Expectation of success following noncontingent punishment in introverts and extraverts.

Recent findings indicate that extraverts are more likely than introverts to continue responding in the face of punishment and frustrating nonreward. To test whether extraverts' expectations for success are similarly resistant to interruption and alteration, 50 introverted and 50 extraverted male undergraduates (as assessed on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire) were exposed to pretreatment with either a 50% level of noncontingent reward or a 50% level of noncontingent punishment. As predicted, there were significant group by pretreatment interactions on all dependent measures. In comparison to introverts who received the punishment pretreatment, extraverts exposed to the same pretreatment placed larger wagers on their ability to succeed, and reported higher levels of perceived control. In addition, relative to their estimates for the pretreatment task, extraverts exposed to noncontingent punishment increased their expectation for success, whereas introverts exposed to noncontingent punishment decreased their performance expectations. No differences were observed between the 2 groups following pretreatment with noncontingent reward. Results suggest that extraverts are characterized by a distinctive reaction to punishment involving response facilitation. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Team effectiveness: Beyond skills and cognitive ability.

On the basis of job analysis results, the validity of using measures of general cognitive ability, job-specific skills, and personality traits jointly at both the individual level and the group level to predict the performance of 79 four-person, human resource work teams was evaluated. Team member trait and job skill scores were aggregated with a conjunctive model of task performance. At the individual level of analysis, measures of personality (i.e., Agreeableness and Conscientiousness) predicted peer ratings of team member performance beyond measures of job-specific skills and general cognitive ability. Similarly, at the group level of analysis, both Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted supervisor ratings of work team performance, objective measures of work team accuracy, and work completed. At both the individual and group levels, the trait of Agreeableness predicted Interpersonal Skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive-Behavioral and Humanistic Group Treatment for Children With Learning Disabilities: A Comparison of Outcomes and Process.

The authors of this study examined the outcomes and processes of 2 types of group treatment--cognitive-behavioral treatment groups (CBTG) and humanistic group therapy (HGT)--offered to 200 elementary schoolchildren in a center for students with learning disabilities in Israel. Results indicated that the addition of either type of group treatment to individual academic assistance was more effective than the latter alone on most measures. In fact, on the majority of measures, group treatment without academic assistance was more effective than just individual assistance. Finally, HGT was more effective than CBTG on most measures. Most of the outcomes were sustained at follow-up, and some even increased from termination to follow-up, although effect sizes were quite low. Process measures included the Client Behavior System and the therapist Helping Skills System, which were measured at 5 points in time. Differences between the 2 treatment types were revealed on both process measures, including differences in the growth curve of these behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An event-related potential analysis of extraversion and individual differences in cognitive processing speed and response execution.

Individual differences in cognitive processing speed and response execution were examined in relation to extraversion. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded concurrently with reaction time and movement time (MT) measures as participants (iNn?=?67) performed simple reaction time and stimulus–response compatibility tasks. Slower processing speed for extraverts, as indicated by longer latency of a late positive ERP wave, P3, was only evident in conditions in which stimulus information was in conflict with response selection demands. As previously reported, the salient effect in all conditions of both tasks was faster MT for extraverts, an effect that is indicative of differences in fundamental motor processes. On the simple reaction time task, amplitudes of the N1 component, an early negative ERP wave, were smaller for extraverts than for introverts in response to auditory tones, an effect that affirms the enhanced sensory reactivity of introverts to punctate physical stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Extraversion, verbal learning, and memory.

Reviews the literature relating extraversion and human learning and memory. There appear to be several replicable differences in learning and memory between introverts and extraverts. Current theorizing emphasizes the concept of arousal and indicates that most of the obtained results are consistent with the notion that introverts are more chronically aroused than extraverts. While this approach appears to be a valuable one, several difficulties with such theorizing are noted. A major inadequacy in the work in this area is seen as the relative failure to use current advances in our understanding of the processes of storage and retrieval in the design of experiments and the subsequent interpretation of the results. (21/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of punishment on response latency in extraverts.

Previous findings indicate that in comparison to introverts, extraverts are prone to form responses that are resistant to interruption by punishment. Because the tendency to stop and reflect following punishment may be crucial for subsequent learning, the present study examined differences between introverts' and extraverts' reactions to punishment using response latency on the trial following punishment as the dependent variable. 66 extraverted and 66 introverted male undergraduates, selected on the basis of Eysenck Personality Questionnaire scores, performed a pattern-matching task in which they received noncontingent 50% success and 50% failure feedback under 3 incentive conditions: reward only, punishment only, or both. As predicted, a significant interaction was found in the both incentive condition, reflecting the tendency of extraverts to respond more quickly and introverts more slowly following punishment than reward. No significant effects were found in the other 2 conditions, although extraverts tended to respond more quickly overall when only reward was given. A 2nd experiment, with 101 male undergraduates, that used reward-only and punishment-only feedback replicated this finding and yielded a significant group?×?condition interaction. Results indicate that in contrast to introverts, extraverts are activated by the availability of reward and, paradoxically, that punishment may facilitate rather than interrupt extraverts' reward-seeking behavior. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual and group psychotherapy of childhood aggression: A comparison of outcomes and processes.

The purpose of this study was to compare outcomes and processes of a therapeutic intervention to reduce children's aggressive behavior, delivered in individual and group formats. Children in 15 small groups (n?=?71) and 15 individual treatment children were compared in a pre–post experimental and control design. The Achenbach self-report behavior checklist and teachers' evaluations were used to measure outcomes. To assess outcome results further, the process of change was qualitatively analyzed. In addition, the therapeutic processes were compared using Hill's counselor and client verbal response modes system. Results concerning outcomes indicated reduced aggression of treated children compared with wait-list children, with no differential impact of the format of treatment. The analyses of stages of change supported the similarity in outcomes. Results concerning process variables indicated differences in both therapist and client verbal responses. In therapists' responses, directives were used more in groups and self-disclosure was used more in individual therapy. In clients' responses, most variables were more frequently used in individual therapy. Experiencing was more frequent in group therapy, and there was no difference in insight and simple responses… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examination of the relationship between true halo and halo error in performance ratings.

The purpose of this study was to test competing theories regarding the relationship between true halo (actual dimensional correlations) and halo rater error (effects of raters' general impressions on specific ratee qualities) at both the individual and group level of analysis. Consistent with the prevailing general impression model of halo rater error, results at both the individual and group level analyses indicated a null (vs. positive or negative) true halo-halo rater error relationship. Results support the ideas that (a) the influence of raters' general impressions is homogeneous across rating dimensions despite wide variability in levels of true halo; (b) in assigning ratings, raters rely both on recalled observations of actual ratee behaviors and on general impressions of ratees in assigning dimensional ratings; and (c) these 2 processes occur independently of one another. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temperament and attention: Orienting toward and away from positive and negative signals.

Two studies used a target detection task to examine temperament-related attentional biases toward and away from significant stimuli. Pretarget cues were used to orient attention to locations carrying a positive incentive value (where points could be gained) or a negative value (where points could be lost). Under both involuntary and voluntary conditions, extraverts were slow to shift attention away from positive locations, whereas introverts were slow to shift from negative locations. These biases were enhanced on trials following negative feedback and tended to be strongest in Ss high in Neuroticism. The findings support models proposing that Extraversion reflects the combined activity of positive (strongest in extraverts) and negative (strongest in introverts) incentive motivational processes. They further suggest that incentive processes regulate the ability to shift attention away from, rather than toward, significant stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reaction to punishment, reflectivity, and passive avoidance learning in extraverts.

Passive avoidance learning occupies a central role in accounts of disinhibited behavior, ranging from psychopaths' persistent criminality (Hare, 1970) to extraverts' gregariousness (Gray, 1972). To explore the mechanism underlying passive avoidance deficits, we assessed the relation of extraversion, neuroticism, and response latency after punishment to passive avoidance learning by using two successive go/no go discrimination tasks. The tasks were designed to examine two aspects of subjects' reactions to punishment: response speed on trials immediately following punishment (Experiment 1) and time to terminate punishment feedback between successive trials (i.e., reflectivity; Experiment 2). Consistent with previous findings, the results of Experiment 1 showed that extraverts commit more passive avoidance errors than introverts do (Newman, Widom, & Nathan, 1985) and fail to pause following punished errors (Nichols & Newman, 1986). In Experiment 2, only neurotic extraverts displayed this pattern of performance differences. In both experiments, longer pausing following punishment predicted better learning from punishment for both introverts and extraverts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transforming service employees and climate: A multilevel, multisource examination of transformational leadership in building long-term service relationships.

This longitudinal field study integrates the theories of transformational leadership (TFL) and relationship marketing to examine how TFL influences employee service performance and customer relationship outcomes by transforming both (at the micro level) the service employees' attitudes and (at the macro level) the work unit's service climate. Results revealed that, at the individual level, managers' TFL was positively related to employee service performance, which, in turn, positively predicted customers' expressed intention to maintain a long-term service relationship with the service employee and manager-reported number of the employee's long-term customers measured 9 months later. In addition, the relationship between TFL and employee service performance was partially mediated by employee self-efficacy. Furthermore, store-level TFL was positively associated with store-level service climate, and service climate further enhanced the relationship between individual-level TFL and employee service performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facial changes in extraction and nonextraction patients

BACKGROUND: An invitational conference was held in Dearborn, MI, in April of 1998 to discuss technical and conceptual issues related to the general topic of using outcomes data to compare plans, networks, and providers. Approximately 150 researchers, clinicians, purchasers, and representatives of accreditation bodies and government agencies attended. SURVEY OF PARTICIPANTS: At the opening session, attendees participated in an electronic survey exercise designed to identify areas of agreement or disagreement on controversial issues related to the main conference topic. MAIN FINDINGS: There was general agreement about the basic concept of health plan and provider accountability for health outcomes, and about the need for further development of data sources and case-mix adjustment models. There was disagreement about other issues, including questions of who should bear the cost of collecting outcomes data and whether results should be analyzed at health plan, network, or individual clinician level. CONCLUSION: A group of experts agreed on the importance of reporting comparative outcomes data, but disagreed on many of the technical details of how that could best be done.     

Extraversion, social cognition, and the salience of aversiveness in social encounters.

Conducted 2 studies to determine whether introverts and extraverts systematically differ in their expectations, recall, and evaluation of social encounter. In Study 1, 102 male undergraduate students (classified as either introvert or extravert based on the Extraversion scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire) evaluated games on rating scales. All Ss rated the competitive game as more arousing and potentially punishing than the cooperative game, but introverts anticipated that the competitive game would be less friendly and likable than did the extraverts. In Study 2, 61 undergraduates believed they would participate in either a cooperative or a competitive game. Ss were shown slides of all other Ss (teammates and opponents), as well as bogus biographical information. Ss were then asked to recall information and evaluate each S on rating scales. Introverts recalled more information about opponents than about their own teammates and rated all Ss less positively during the competitive encounter. For extraverts, this pattern was reversed. Results are discussed in terms of individual differences in the salience of aversiveness in social encounters. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of children's attributions and achievement-related evaluations in competitive, cooperative, and individualistic reward structures.

Studied how the reward structure of an achievement setting would affect children's attributions and evaluations of achievement outcomes. An achievement situation describing 2 children successfully and unsuccessfully performing a task in competitive, cooperative, and individualistic reward structures was presented to 400 children across 5 grade levels (1–5). Results show that different evaluative beliefs about the concepts of ability and reward allocation were associated with each reward contingency. Competitive and individualistic structures accentuated perceptions of individual differences and the value placed on achievement outcomes. Evaluations of cooperative vs competitive outcomes were dependent on the level of individual performance within the groups and the success of the cooperative group. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)