The fit and implementation of sexual harassment law to workplace evaluations.

Three studies used videotaped harassment complaints to examine the impact of legal standards on the evaluation of social-sexual conduct at work. Study 1 demonstrated that without legal instructions, college students' judgment strategies were highly variable. Study 2 compared 2 current legal standards, the "severity or pervasiveness test" and a proposed utilitarian alternative (i.e., the rational woman approach). Undergraduate participants taking the perspective of the complainant were more sensitive to offensive conduct than were those adopting an objective perspective. Although the utilitarian alternative further increased sensitivity on some measures, it failed to produce a principled judgment strategy. Finally, Study 3 examined the kinds of errors that full-time workers make when applying the "severity or pervasiveness" test to examine more closely the sensitivity of the subjective approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behind closed doors: In-home workers' experience of sexual harassment and workplace violence.

The authors developed and tested a structural model predicting personal and organizational consequences of workplace violence and sexual harassment for health care professionals who work inside their client's home. The model suggests that workplace violence and sexual harassment predict fear of their recurrence in the workplace, which in turn predicts negative mood (anxiety and anger) and perceptions of injustice. In turn, fear, negative mood, and perceived injustice predict lower affective commitment and enhanced withdrawal intentions, poor interpersonal job performance, greater neglect, and cognitive difficulties. The results supported the model and showed that the associations of workplace violence and sexual harassment with organizational and personal outcomes are indirect, mediated by fear and negative mood. Conceptual implications for understanding sexual harassment and workplace violence, and future research directions, are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparing victim attributions and outcomes for workplace aggression and sexual harassment.

In 2 studies, we investigated victim attributions (Study 1) and outcomes (Study 2) for workplace aggression and sexual harassment. Drawing on social categorization theory, we argue that victims of workplace aggression and sexual harassment may make different attributions about their mistreatment. In Study 1, we investigated victim attributions in an experimental study. We hypothesized that victims of sexual harassment are more likely than victims of workplace aggression to depersonalize their mistreatment and attribute blame to the perpetrator or the perpetrator's attitudes toward their gender. In contrast, victims of workplace aggression are more likely than victims of sexual harassment to personalize the mistreatment and make internal attributions. Results supported our hypotheses. On the basis of differential attributions for these 2 types of mistreatment, we argue that victims of workplace aggression may experience stronger adverse outcomes than victims of sexual harassment. In Study 2, we compared meta-analytically the attitudinal, behavioral, and health outcomes of workplace aggression and sexual harassment. Negative outcomes of workplace aggression were stronger in magnitude than those of sexual harassment for 6 of the 8 outcome variables. Implications and future directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The phenomenology of sexual harassment: Why does sexual behavior bother people in the workplace?

One of the issues that a consulting psychologist sometimes is asked to address as an expert witness in sexual harassment legal cases is how people interpret behavior to be sexually harassing. Of value in explaining why behavior is sometimes sexually harassing and sometimes not is an examination of some of the typical reasons people are bothered by sexual behavior in the workplace. Results are presented from a survey in which over 2,600 working women and men were asked to describe sexual behaviors they found to be sexually harassing at work. Nine reasons Ss were bothered by uninvited sexual attention at work were found, including exploitation of power and unprofessional behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: A test of an integrated model.

Sexual harassment of women in organizational settings has recently become a topic of interest to researchers and the general public alike. Although numerous studies document its frequency, the development of conceptual models identifying antecedents and consequences of harassment has proceeded at a slower pace. In this article, an empirical test of a recently proposed conceptual model is described. According to the model, organizational climate for sexual harassment and job gender context are critical antecedents of sexual harassment; harassment, in turn, influences work-related variables (e.g., job satisfaction); psychological states (e.g., anxiety and depression); and physical health. On the basis of a sample of women employed at a large, regulated utility company, the model's predictions were generally supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal and organizational predictors of workplace sexual harassment of women by men.

The authors investigated the predictors of workplace sexual harassment in 278 male university faculty and staff (M age?=?45 years). Workplace variables (perceptions of organizational sanctions against harassment and perceptions of a sexualized workplace) and personal variables (adversarial sexual beliefs, sexual harassment beliefs, perspective taking, and self-esteem) were studied as predictors of sexualized and gender harassment. Social desirability was controlled. Both organizational variables and beliefs about sexual harassment predicted gender harassment and sexualized harassment. Perspective taking, adversarial sexual beliefs, and sexual harassment beliefs moderated the effects of perceived organizational sanctions against harassment on sexualized harassment. Findings are discussed as they relate to organizational efforts to reduce or prevent sexual harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pragmatic support for the reasonable victim standard in hostile workplace sexual harassment cases.

The development of the objective reasonableness standard in Title VII sexual harassment cases is reviewed. The author examines major policies or goals that underlie subjective and objective aspects of the test to determine whether harassing conduct is sufficiently abusive and hostile to violate the law: (a) elimination of gender-biased norms, (b) eradication of harassment, and (c) uniformity. Four formulations of objective reasonableness are distinguished: the reasonable person, victim, woman, and employee. Problems demonstrated by courts in applying objective reasonableness standards are specified, many of which are attributed to inadequate definitional content. Empirical support for flexibility in the standard leads to recommendations favoring a reasonable victim standard that takes into account variations in the identity and circumstances of the victim including pertinent gender differences. Potential expert testimony to address these concerns is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychological organizations of Canada--Round two.

This article is presented as a potential chapter of the history of psychological organizations in Canada. The writer briefly describes the origins, the structure, the aims and membership of the Canadian University Counselling Association. In his view a substantial number of the members of C.U.C.A. could be the nucleus of a division or interest groups of C.P.A.--specifically that of Counselling Psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual harassment: Violence against women in the workplace.

Sexual harassment has been a fixture of the workplace since women first began to work outside the home. Although true epidemiological studies do not exist, large-scale surveys of working women suggest that approximately 1 of every 2 women will be harassed at some point during their academic or working lives. The data indicate that harassment is degrading, frightening, and sometimes physically violent; frequently extends over a considerable period of time; and can result in profound job-related, psychological, and health-related consequences. This article provides a brief review of the prevalence and consequences of sexual harassment and outlines social policy implications for research, legislation, and primary prevention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual assault and other types of sexual harassment by workplace personnel: A comparison of antecedents and consequences.

Although sexual assault by workplace personnel is widely viewed as a type of sexual harassment, little is known about whether these overlapping constructs may possess some unique characteristics. This article compares the theoretical antecedents and consequences of sexual assault by workplace personnel and other types of sexual harassment among 22,372 women employed in the U.S. military. Path analysis revealed that low sociocultural and organizational power are associated with an increased likelihood of both types of victimization. Organizational climate and job gender context are directly associated with sexual harassment but are only indirectly associated with sexual assault by workplace personnel. Both types of victimization are associated with a variety of negative outcomes, but the pattern of negative consequences differs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The sexual harassment of men: Evidence for a broader theory of sexual harassment and sex discrimination.

The article imposes a social science framework on a law-based theory of sexual harassment forwarded by Katherine Franke (1997), which sought to address shortcomings of extant theory and to account for atypical forms of sexual harassment, notably male same-sex sexual harassment (SSSH). Sex-role spillover theory, sexual harassment climate theory, and Person × Situation theory are discussed with regard to their ability to account for SSSH. Preliminary postulates of this framework are tested with data from the 1995 Department of Defense sexual harassment survey of the U.S. military (J. E. Edwards, T. W. Elig, D. L. Edwards, & R. A. Riemer (1997). The results suggest that SSSH occurs because targeted men do not fit their offenders' gender-role stereotype of heterosexual hypermasculinity. Legal and workplace implications are discussed in an effort to expand existing theories and policies regarding sexual harassment to this more encompassing view. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of racial and sexual harassment on work and the psychological well-being of African American women.

Research on workplace harassment has typically examined either racial or sexual harassment, without studying both simultaneously. As a result, it remains unknown whether the co-occurrence of racial and sexual harassment or their interactive effects account for unique variance in work and psychological well-being. In this study, hierarchical linear regression analyses were used to explore the influence of racial and sexual harassment on these outcomes among 91 African American women involved in a sexual harassment employment lawsuit. Results indicated that both sexual and racial harassment contributed significantly to the women's occupational and psychological outcomes. Moreover, their interaction was statistically significant when predicting supervisor satisfaction and perceived organizational tolerance of harassment. Using a sample of African American women employed in an organizational setting where harassment was known to have occurred and examining sexual and racial harassment concomitantly makes this study unique. As such, it provides novel insights and an important contribution to an emerging body of research and underscores the importance of assessing multiple forms of harassment when examining organizational stressors, particularly among women of color. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patients' sexual behavior and sexual harassment: A survey of clinical supervisors.

How do clinical supervisors respond to supervisees' reports of sexualized or sexually harassing behaviors by patients? A survey of experienced supervisors was conducted to answer this question and to determine the incidence of such reports. A substantial number of participants reported receiving at least 1 report of patient sexual harassment of a supervisee. Reports ranged from persistent inappropriate sexual comments to physical sexual assaults. Supervisors' responses ranged from supervisory discussions to active interventions. Clinical supervisors must acknowledge the potential for supervisees to be sexually harassed by patients and incorporate strategies to deal with harassment in their training programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Labeling sexual harassment in the military: An extension and replication.

Research conducted by V. Magley, C. Hulin, L. F. Fitzgerald, and M. DeNardo (1999) has suggested that women who experience sexual harassment report worse outcomes independent of the labeling process. This study replicates and extends that work. Discriminant analyses were conducted on a sample of approximately 28,000 men and women from the military. The authors included variables similar to those used by V. Magley et al., as well as a variety of antecedent variables. Two significant functions were obtained from the discriminant analysis. The 1st function ordered groups according to the frequency of harassment and accounted for substantially more variance than did the 2nd function, which ordered groups according to whether they labeled their experiences as sexual harassment. The overall results from these analyses demonstrate that labeling incidents as sexual harassment is of marginal meaningfulness in terms of job outcomes and antecedents of harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Critters in the cube farm: Perceived psychological and organizational effects of pets in the workplace.

This article reports the findings of an exploratory study examining the perceived functions and psychological and organizational effects of pets in the workplace. Participants were 193 employees from 31 companies allowing pets in the workplace who completed anonymous questionnaires. Results indicated that participants perceived pets in the workplace to reduce stress and to positively affect employee health and the organization. Participants who brought their pets to work perceived greater benefits than participants who did not bring their pets to work and participants who did not own pets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Guidelines for the elimination of sexual harassment.

Presents a summary of the guidelines for the elimination of sexual harassment adopted by the Canadian Psychological Association. The guidelines include a definition of sexual harassment, and they outline the responsibilities of professional psychologists not only to refrain from practicing harassment but also to take responsible action when they know of sexual harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in experiences of sexual harassment: Data from a male-dominated environment.

The goal of this investigation was to examine gender differences in experiences of sexual harassment during military service and the negative mental health symptoms associated with these experiences. Female (n = 2,319) and male (n = 1,627) former reservists were surveyed about sexual harassment during their military service and current mental health symptoms. As expected, women reported a higher frequency of sexual harassment. Further, women had increased odds of experiencing all subtypes of sexual harassment. Being female conferred the greatest risk for experiencing the most serious forms of harassment. For both men and women, sexual harassment was associated with more negative current mental health. However, at higher levels of harassment, associations with some negative mental health symptoms were stronger for men than women. Although preliminary, the results of this investigation suggest that although women are harassed more frequently than men, clinicians must increase their awareness of the potential for sexual harassment among men in order to provide the best possible care to all victims of harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patient sexual behavior and sexual harassment: A national survey of female psychologists.

A nationwide survey of 750 female psychologists practicing psychotherapy was conducted to determine the incidence of sexual harassment and potentially sexualized patient behaviors in clinical practice. A usable return rate of 48.7% was obtained (N?=?354). A total of 53.7% of the respondents reported at least 1 incident of sexual harassment. Events ranged from inappropriate verbal remarks to sexual assaults. Respondents reported an even higher incidence of sexually suggestive patient behaviors in clinical practice, although most of these were not experienced as sexual harassment. Implications for training and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual harassment and sexual intimacy in learning environments.

This paper, prepared under the auspices of the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) Education and Training Committee, reviews the literature on sexual harassment and sexual intimacy between students and faculty or supervisors in educational contexts with a particular focus on the Canadian scene. Topics discussed include definitional issues, incidence and examples, consequences, ethical issues, and strategies for change. Past responses of CPA to these concerns are outlined. Also included is the set of recommendations recently approved by the CPA Board of Directors, designed to assist educational institutions in addressing the problems of sexual harassment and inappropriate sexual intimacy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A within-subject longitudinal study of the effects of positive job experiences and generalized workplace harassment on well-being.

Drawing on the mobilization-minimization hypothesis, this research examines the influence of positive job experiences and generalized workplace harassment (GWH) on employee job stress and well-being over time, postulating declines in the adverse influence of GWH between Time 1 and 2 and less pronounced declines in the influence of positive job experiences over this same timeframe of approximately one year. A national sample of 1,167 workers polled via telephone at two time periods illustrates that negative job experiences weigh more heavily on mental health than do positive job experiences in the short-term. In the long-term, GWH's association with mental health and job stress was diminished. But its effects on job stress, and mental health, and physical health persist over one year, and, in the case of long-term mental health, GWH overshadows the positive mental health effects of positive job experiences. The research also argues for a reconceptualization of GWH and positive job experiences as formative latent variables on theoretical grounds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)