Effect of goal acceptance on the relationship of goal difficulty to performance.

Tested the hypotheses that goal acceptance moderates the relationship of goal difficulty to task performance as follows: (a) The relationship is positive and linear for accepted goals; (b) it is negative and linear if the goal is rejected; and thus, (c) slope reversal from positively to negatively linear relationships is associated with transition from positive to negative values of goal acceptance. The experiment was a within-S design, allowing for high variance in acceptance, with technicians and engineers (21–50 yrs of age) divided at random into a 2-phase experimental condition (n?=?104) with specific goal difficulty gradually increasing from Trial 1 to 7 and a control group (n?=?36) with the general instructions to "do your best." Instructions for Phase 2 differed from Phase 1 in that Ss were instructed to reassess their acceptance of difficult goals. The task consisted of determining, within 2-min trials, how many digits or letters in a row were the same as the circled one to the left of each row. Results support the hypotheses. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of threat and frustration on group cohesiveness.

A field experiment concerned with the effects of threat and frustration upon cohesiveness seemed to justify several conclusions. (a) A reduction in threat seems to increase cohesiveness. (b) A reduction in frustration does not increase cohesiveness. (c) A catharsis of hostility may increase the attractiveness of teams toward which hostility is directed. (d) Strong frustration may produce "a withdrawal symptom consisting of reduced interteam competition and increased intrateam cooperation." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Realpolitik versus fair process: Moderating effects of group identification on acceptance of political decisions.

Three studies examined the effects of perceived procedural justice and the favorability of a group-level outcome on the endorsement of a group-level decision and the evaluation of the authority responsible for the decision. Results showed that, contrary to findings usually seen with individual-level decisions, collective outcome favorability was more important than procedural justice in influencing the endorsement of the decision. Furthermore, increased identification with the group reduced the importance of procedural justice but accentuated the importance of collective outcome favorability. With regard to the evaluation of the authority, the results were similar to those obtained in individual-level decisions: Procedural fairness mattered more than collective outcome favorability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of group cohesiveness on social loafing and social compensation.

Individuals often engage in social loafing, exerting less effort on collective rather than individual tasks. Two experiments tested the hypothesis that social loafing can be reduced or eliminated when individuals work in cohesive rather than noncohesive groups. In Experiment 1, secretarial students typed both individually and collectively in simulated word-processing pools composed of either friends or strangers. In Experiment 2, dyads composed of either friends or strangers worked either coactively or collectively on an idea-generation task. Both studies supported the group cohesiveness hypothesis. Experiment 2 also suggested that individuals tend to engage in social compensation when working with coworkers who are low in ability. These findings are discussed in relation to S. J. Karau and K. D. Williams's (1993) Collective Effort Model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderating effects of contextual variables on the relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and suggested analgesia.

Assessed 75 undergraduates high, medium, or low on hypnotic susceptibility (the Carleton University Responsiveness to Suggestion Scale) on the cold pressor task before and after 1 of 3 instructional treatments. The treatments were (a) brief instructions to try to reduce pain, (b) the same analgesia instructions preceded by a hypnotic induction procedure, and (c) no hypnotic induction or instructions. In the hypnotic treatment, susceptibility correlated significantly with reductions in reported pain, and high-susceptible Ss reported significantly larger pain reductions than did control Ss. In the instruction-alone treatment, there was no significant relationship between susceptibility and pain reduction, and Ss at all 3 susceptibility levels reduced reported pain significantly more than did controls and as much as did high-susceptible hypnotic Ss. Findings suggest that the correlation between hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic analgesia is moderated by Ss' attitudes and expectancies concerning their own performance in situations defined as related to hypnosis. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation between group cohesiveness and performance: An integration.

Reports the results of meta-analytic integration of the relation between group cohesiveness and performance. Overall, the cohesive–performance effect was highly significant and of small magnitude. The effect was stronger in correlational studies than in experimental studies. The effect was also stronger in smaller groups than in larger groups and stronger among real groups than among artificial groups. The cohesive–performance effect is due primarily to commitment to task rather than interpersonal attraction or group pride. A meta-analytic cross-lagged panel correlation analysis suggested that the most direct effect might be from performance to cohesiveness rather than from cohesiveness to performance. Discussion considers the implications of these results for future research on group cohesiveness and performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of group feedback, goal setting, and incentives on organizational productivity.

Productivity research has focused on simple jobs with the individual as the unit of analysis. Most jobs are more complex and, because of the interdependencies in the work, require group-level interventions and more complex measures of performance or productivity. This research presents a new method of measuring productivity, the Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System (ProMES), and uses measures from this approach as a foundation for group-based feedback, goal setting, and incentives. The experimental design consisted of a baseline period of 8 to 9 months, followed by a 5-month period of feedback based on the ProMES. Goal setting was then added to feedback for 5 months. Finally, incentives in the form of time off from work were added to feedback and goal setting for another 5 months. Results indicated that group-level feedback increased productivity an average of 50% over baseline, group goal setting increased productivity 75% over baseline, and group incentives increased productivity 76% over baseline. Control group data showed no or only a slight increase in productivity over the same period, and level of personnel either stayed the same or decreased. In addition, work attitudes such as job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and morale were as good or better following the interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of an explicit group contract on self-disclosure and group cohesiveness.

Assigned 96 male undergraduates to small groups based on their scores on a 40-item self-report survey derived from the Self-Disclosure Questionnaire. Half the groups received an explicit self-disclosure contract while the other half received no contract. Findings show that (a) the contract served to increase significantly both the frequency and depth of self-disclosure but did not affect the level of intimacy of topics discussed; and (b) the contract significantly enhanced the cohesiveness of the groups (i.e., attraction to the group) but had the opposite effect on members' mutual liking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A laboratory study of the effects of goal specificity on the relationship between probability of success and performance.

175 male undergraduates solved arithmetic problems under 1 of 3 experimental conditions of objective probability of task success and 1 of 2 conditions of goal specificity. The relationship between objective probability of task success and performance was curvilinear in both goal conditions such that maximum performance occurred at the intermediate probability level. There was also an overall linear and positive relationship between Ss' expressed subjective probabilities of success and performance. Results point to the possibility that the relationship between probability of success and performance depends on whether trait or state components are represented in the probability measure. When both trait and state components are represented, the relationship seems to depend on whether Ss have access to cues informing them how close they are to achieving their goal during task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of anxiety on the relationship between self-acceptance and acceptance of others.

Tests of general and test anxiety were administered with a self-acceptance (SA)-acceptance of others (AO) questionnaire to 92 Ss to test the prediction that anxiety increased the usual SA-AO correlation. Results indicate that (a) anxiety is significantly associated with both lowered self-acceptance and lowered acceptance of others, (b) anxiety disrupts the SA-AO relationship by lowering self-acceptance at a greater rate than acceptance of others, (c) low anxiety permits the usual SA-AO correlation to exist. Conclusions were that (a) learning theory from which the prediction was derived is inadequate in self-theory areas of personality, (b) anxiety has a disruptive, yet systematic influence on the self-acceptance-acceptance of others relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of experimental manipulation of self-disclosure on group cohesiveness.

Self-disclosure in 8-hr experiential groups was systematically controlled by providing detailed audiotaped instructions and illustrations through a series of structured exercises. Two levels of self-disclosure (level of intimacy) were established. Four 8-person, heterosexually balanced groups were exposed to encounter group tapes that instructed them to share intimate feelings and experiences. Examples of high self-disclosure and openness were presented to clarify the instructions. In contrast, 4 comparable groups were conducted by encounter group tapes that furnished only moderate levels of personal disclosure and interpersonal sharing. Groups in both the high and low intimacy conditions received the same set of exercises and differed only in the instructions and accompanying behavioral examples. All Ss were undergraduates. Results indicate that higher levels of disclosure produced greater group cohesiveness as hypothesized, on 4 separate measures of the dependent variable. Findings on 3 different types of self-report instruments were corroborated by an unobtrusive behavioral measure of cohesiveness (the group hug). (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderating effects of gender on the relationship between not graduating from high school and psychological dysfunction in young adulthood.

With data from a panel (N?=?4,679) tested in the 7th grade and as young adults as input to the LISREL 8 program, the authors estimated 2 male-female sets of theoretically informed models specifying effects of failure to finish high school on the latent construct "psychological dysfunction" during young adulthood and controlling for psychological functioning in the 7th grade, father's education, race or ethnicity, and other variables. Results suggest a negative effect of not graduating on psychological functioning for both male and female students in the full sample and in the sample of students who did not go on to college (n?=?1,871). This relationship was stronger for female than for male participants in the full sample, but no statistical difference was evident in the non-college-bound subsample. These results are accounted for by the stronger relationship observed between starting college and adult psychological functioning for women than for men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of group cohesiveness and training upon creative thinking.

In the formation of creative thinking groups, how well does brainstorming work? 48 Ss were divided into trained and untrained samples; and cohesive, noncohesive, and "nominal" subgroups of 2 persons each were formed, based on sociometric choice. Several hypothetical problems were discussed. An analysis of variance statistical technique was used to compare number of responses and number of unique responses between the groups. "Brainstorming by pairs of superior adults will produce more unique ideas when the groups are trained in the method and composed of people who like to brainstorm together. This is true, however, only when they are working on ego-involving problems." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderating effects of client attachment on the counselor experience–working alliance relationship.

The authors predicted that client attachment status would moderate the relationship between counselor experience and client-perceived working alliance. Forty clients from 2 university counseling centers completed measures of attachment and the working alliance. Their counselors were classified according to experience level. Client comfort with intimacy was related to a stronger alliance with the counselors. However, counselor experience was unrelated to client-rated working alliance. Client attachment, specifically comfort with intimacy, moderated the relationship between counselor experience and working alliance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attempts to lead, group productivity, and morale under conditions of acceptance and rejection.

The hypothesis being tested by this experiment was that under conditions such that to attempt to lead is to invite rejection, group members with a relatively high need achievement and a relatively low need affiliation would make more frequent attempts to lead than would other members having relatively high affiliation and low achievement needs. 24 four-man groups were set up under controlled laboratory conditions. Although the major hypothesis was not confirmed, it was shown that differences in attempts to lead may be attributed to differences in the experimental conditions to which the groups were subjected, rather than to the major needs specified. 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of clear and unclear role expectations on group productivity and defensiveness.

An experimental exploration of the hypothesis that the time and energy used by members of a group in attempting to predict the behavior of others reduces the amount of group energy for any given group goal or task. The prediction that ambiguous role expectations would reduce group productivity and satisfaction, and increased defensiveness, was supported by the data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of goal setting and group size on performance in a social dilemma.

Examined the effect of self-set personal and assigned group goal setting on an individual's behavior in 3- and 7-person groups confronted with a social dilemma. 274 Ss earned between $1.82 and $4.94 by investing money in either a personal account or a group account. Self-set personal goals that were compatible with an assigned group goal led to higher group performance than self-set incompatibly high ("greedy") personal goals. Collective-efficacy in making money, outcome expectancies that cooperation with others leads to the attainment of the group's goal, and group goal commitment correlated positively with group performance. Ss in 7-person groups (N?=?28) were less cooperative than those in 3-person groups (N?=?26). Ss in 7-person groups had lower collective-efficacy, lower outcome expectancies, and lower commitment to the group goal than did Ss in 3-person groups. Furthermore, individual performance in 7-person groups was significantly lower than individual performance in 3-person groups. A social dilemma appears to be a boundary condition for the normally positive effect of group goal setting on group performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of organizational structure on correlations between member abilities and group productivity.

Presented results from 2 studies, the first carried out in a military setting with 40 4-man groups and the 2nd involving 48 3-man groups of undergraduates. When the group task required Ss to cooperate by coordinating their efforts, group productivity was significantly affected by the average ability of the group and the ability of the dullest member. When the group task required Ss to cooperate by collaborating, group productivity was not significantly affected by either the average ability of the group or the ability of the dullest member. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of two types of feedback on goal acceptance and personal goals.

Effects of two types of performance feedback, goal discrepancy (GDF) and past-performance discrepancy (PDF), on acceptance of assigned goals and personal goal levels were examined. Subjects were 110 introductory psychology students, 90 in an experimental and 20 in a control condition, who performed an anagram task for seven trials. Assigned goals for experimental subjects became increasingly difficult. As predicted, assigned goals were rejected when GDF became sufficiently negative. GDF and PDF differed both in sign and magnitude of effects on acceptance and personal goals, indicating that subjects used these feedback discrepancies differently in the goal evaluation process. Unexpectedly, personal goals and performance remained high even after assigned goals were rejected. The importance of understanding factors affecting goal acceptance was discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group composition using interpersonal skills: An analogue study on the effects of members' interpersonal skills on peer ratings and group cohesiveness.

Analyzed characteristics of groups in which all members were rated previously as performing at either high or low levels of interpersonal skills during a behavioral assessment procedure. Ss were 138 undergraduates. Group members evaluated each other's interpersonal behavior and their group's cohesiveness after a 2-hr leaderless session. Members of highly skilled groups were seen as more empathically understanding, more honest and open, more accepting, and as discussing more personally meaningful topics. Highly skilled groups were seen as more cohesive. It is suggested that a behavioral approach to group composition has a powerful effect on group members' perceptions of each other and of their group experience. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)