Effects of working memory,attention, and expertise on pilots’ situation awareness

The current study investigates individual differences that predict situation awareness (SA) in professional pilots. The aim of the study is twofold: to examine the roles of divided attention, inhibition, working memory, and expertise in predicting SA, and to demonstrate the relative contributions of these individual differences to online (Situation Awareness Present Method, SPAM) and offline (Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique, SAGAT) SA measures. Thirty-six professional pilots completed a challenging flight scenario in a full-flight simulator. Divided attention, inhibition, working memory span, and expertise were measured using choice reaction time with dichotic listening, Stroop, and Automated Operation Span tasks, and flight hours in a full-flight simulator, respectively. Results indicated that offline and online SA measure were not correlated, supporting their concurrent use to obtain a comprehensive measure of SA. Offline SA scores were best predicted by working memory and level of expertise, while online SA scores were predicted by expertise, divided attention and inhibition. Results are discussed focusing on both theoretical contributions for defining and measuring SA and applications. Findings have implications for operators of critical domains and their interactions with automated systems, in which SA is crucial for performance and safety.     

The effect of working memory training on situation awareness in a flight simulator

Cognition, Technology & Work - The close relationship between working memory and situation awareness (SA) has been confirmed and further empirical investigations are lacking. The main aim of...     

Memory capacity and information capacity of sparsely encoded associative memory with replacement units

We introduce sparse encoding into the autoassociative memory model with replacement units. Utilizing computer simulation, we search the optimal number of replacement units in two terms: the memory capacity and the information capacity of the network. We show that the optimal number of replacement units to maximize the memory capacity and the information capacity decreases as the firing ratio decreases, and that the difference in the memory capacity between sparse encoding and non-sparse encoding becomes small as the number of replacement units increases.     

Surviving task interruptions: Investigating the implications of long-term working memory theory

Typically, we have several tasks at hand, some of which are in interrupted state while others are being carried out. Most of the time, such interruptions are not disruptive to task performance. Based on the theory of Long-Term Working Memory (LTWM; Ericsson, K.A., Kintsch, W., 1995. Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102, 211–245), we posit that unless there are enough mental skills and resources to encode task representations to retrieval structures in long-term memory, the resulting memory traces will not enable reinstating the information, which can lead to memory losses. However, once encoded to LTWM, they are virtually safeguarded. Implications of the theory were tested in a series of experiments in which the reading of an expository text was interrupted by a 30-s interactive task, after which the reading was continued. The results convey the remarkably robust nature of skilled memory—when LTWM encoding speed is fast enough for the task-processing imposed by the interface, interruptions have no effect on memory, regardless of their pacing, intensity, or difficulty. In the final experiment where presentation time in the main task was notably speeded up to match the limits of encoding speed, interruptions did hamper memory. Based on the results and the theory, we argue that auditory rehearsal or time-based retrieval cues were not utilized in surviving interruptions and that they are in general weaker strategies for surviving interruptions in complex cognitive tasks. We conclude the paper by suggesting three ways to support interruption tolerance by the means of task and interface design: (1) actively facilitating the development of memory skills, (2) matching encoding speed to task processing demands, and (3) supporting encoding-retrieval symmetry.     

The effects of three different computer texts on readers' recall: based on working memory capacity

This study investigated the effects of three different computer texts on readers' recall based on individuals' different working memory capacities. In addition, the intermediate effects of the total reading time were taken into account. The findings indicated that the structure and presentation of text influence how well information is remembered. Those who read the linear, traditional text produced better recall scores than those who read the hypertexts. In particular, when the total time spent on reading was controlled, the difference between the two hypertexts disappeared. Furthermore, the participants with different working memory capacities appeared to exhibit different results in that those who were low in working memory produced the best results with the traditional text while the difference was not significant among the different conditions for those who were high in working memory.     

Situation awareness: review of Mica Endsley's 1995 articles on situation awareness theory and measurement

OBJECTIVE: This article summarizes two articles by Endsley on situation awareness (SA) and presents the influence of the concept on subsequent practice and theory of human factors. BACKGROUND: In her articles, Endsley integrated and consolidated existing research done in the prior decade. METHOD: I carefully examined and integrated subsequent articles on the SA topic written by Endsley and by others. RESULTS: This integration revealed that SA has been applied to areas of training, error analysis, design, selection, teamwork, and automation. Some key issues related to automation and SA are reviewed in detail. CONCLUSION: Situation awareness is a viable and important construct that still possesses some controversy over measurement issues. APPLICATION: Ways in which human factors practitioners have used the SA construct and numerous citations are provided to assist designers.     

Knowledge and information awareness for initiating transactive memory system processes of computer-supported collaborating ad hoc groups

This paper presents an innovative approach for initiating processes of a transactive memory system in newly formed groups of experts collaborating computer-supported in a complex problem-solving task. Our empirical study compared 15 experimental and 15 control groups, each consisting of triads. In the experimental condition, the triads were provided with a tool for fostering knowledge and information awareness, that is, being informed about the knowledge and the underlying information of the collaboration partners in form of digital concept maps. In the control condition, the groups had no access to this tool. Results confirmed the potential of the tool to initiate processes of a transactive memory system: shared agreement of the knowledge of the other group members’ knowledge proved to influence group performance positively. In addition, previous findings of the tool’s potential to establish knowledge and information awareness and to augment group performance could be replicated. However, the postulated mediating effect of processes of a transactive memory system concerning the impact of knowledge and information awareness on group performance did not reach statistical significance. Aspects for future studies and implications of these findings regarding their practical implementation, for example, in teams of organizations, are discussed.     

Using conscious reflection,group processes,and AI to facilitate development of expertise

Three experiments investigated procedures derived from research on knowledge acquisition, group processes, and artificial intelligence for facilitating the development of expertise. In each experimental session, subjects learned to control a simulated sugar production factory. Then they formulated written policies for controlling sugar production either alone as individuals or in small groups. An adaptive AI system provided feedback on policy quality. The research also investigated the use of forced reflective practice in which learners attempted to predict what their policy would do while performing the task. The AI system provided feedback about what their policy would have done in each situation and the outcome based on their policy's response or their suggested alternative response. Results indicated that group interaction and feedback from the AI system improved policy quality. However, only when all three procedures were employed, group interaction, AI feedback, and forced reflective practice, was the development of individual expertise on the task enhanced.     

Observational assessment of situation awareness, team differences and training implications

The two goals were to investigate, first, the practicability and reliability of observational assessment of team situation awareness (SA) and, second, the nature of any team differences, their consistency and training implications. Five shift teams tackled three scenarios, each with three probe events concerning SA, and three observers viewed and rated concurrently each shift. This methodology was found to be practicable and achieved satisfactory rater reliability as indicated by intraclass and inter-rater correlations. Team differences in SA emerged although there was no consistent pattern. A retrospective analysis of individual and team behaviours relating to SA was performed using the Critical Incident Technique. A total of 75 incidents and 20 behavioural dimensions relevant to SA were identified and these were subsumed under planning, problem solving, team coordination, attention, communication and knowledge. These findings are discussed with regard to the nature and measurement of SA, and the content of training to improve SA for control room teams.     

Observational assessment of situation awareness,team differences and training implications

The two goals were to investigate, first, the practicability and reliability of observational assessment of team situation awareness (SA) and, second, the nature of any team differences, their consistency and training implications. Five shift teams tackled three scenarios, each with three probe events concerning SA, and three observers viewed and rated concurrently each shift. This methodology was found to be practicable and achieved satisfactory rater reliability as indicated by intraclass and inter-rater correlations. Team differences in SA emerged although there was no consistent pattern. A retrospective analysis of individual and team behaviours relating to SA was performed using the Critical Incident Technique. A total of 75 incidents and 20 behavioural dimensions relevant to SA were identified and these were subsumed under planning, problem solving, team coordination, attention, communication and knowledge. These findings are discussed with regard to the nature and measurement of SA, and the content of training to improve SA for control room teams.     

Entanglement assisted classical capacity of a class of quantum channels with long-term memory

In this paper we evaluate the entanglement assisted classical capacity of a class of quantum channels with long-term memory, which are convex combinations of memoryless channels. The memory of such channels can be considered to be given by a Markov chain which is aperiodic but not irreducible. This class of channels was introduced by Datta and Dorlas in (J. Phys. A, Math. Theor. 40:8147–8164, 2007), where its product state capacity was evaluated.      

Interactivity and memory: Information processing of interactive versus non-interactive content

Existing research on the effects of interactivity tends to treat it as a global characteristic of the interface. However, not all content on an interface is endowed with interactive features. Therefore, it is important to explore how interactivity affects the cognitive processing of those particular content that is presented with interactive features and the surrounding content without these features. With this objective, a between-subjects experiment was conducted to understand how levels of interactivity affect information processing among users of an e-commerce website. The major findings of the study are: 1) Higher interactivity enhances recognition as well as recall memory of interactive content, but diminishes recognition and recall memory of non-interactive content; 2) Individuals spend the least amount of time on the interface with high interactivity, while most of this time is spent on interactive part rather than non-interactive part of the interface; 3) A moderate level of interactivity attracts most user attention to product information. The findings about interactivity’s effect have implications for cue-summation theory and limited capacity theory. The experiment’s results also hold practical implications for e-tailers.     

The use of flight progress strips while working live traffic: frequencies, importance, and perceived benefits

The Federal Aviation Administration's effort to automate air traffic control (ATC) requires that the functionality provided today be captured in future systems. We report the first quantitative naturalistic observation of paper flight progress strip interactions during operational use. Strip use was similar in a variety of situations, but some uses varied as a function of altitude, staffing, or the cooperative style used by controller teams. Design of automation should proceed by prioritizing changes based on frequency of use and importance and should ensure that an effective method of interacting with flight information is incorporated. In addition to applied relevance to the ATC domain, the results touch on several theoretical concerns relevant to dynamic environments. Actual and potential applications of this research include the establishment of a database of strip activity and an arsenal of information valuable to system designers.     

Attention,polychronicity, and expertise in prospective memory performance: Programmers' vulnerability to habit intrusion error in multitasking

The paper examines prospective memory (ProM) in programmer multitasking and reports administration of a naturalistic atypical action. The study emphasizes on how attention, time orientation, and expertise affect ProM performance in multitasking among a group of computer science and engineering students (N=108). The results suggest that attention play a crucial role in multitasking and ProM performance with respect to whether or not a word display requires more attention to be devoted in monitoring and identifying it for an appropriate action. Polychrons exhibit lesser degree of ProM performance failure than monochrons whereas expertise does not have an effect. Finally, results show that out of overall ProM performance failure, habit intrusion errors comprise of 16.22% occurring 1.75 times in every 10 valid click responses of ProM task. Moreover, experts demonstrate a superior performance over novices in programming.     

Comprehending product warning information: age-related effects and the roles of memory, inferencing, and knowledge

Two experiments were conducted to determine if age affects comprehension for explicit and implied warning information and, if so, to reveal the nature of such effects. Experiment 1 measured younger (18-23 years) and older (65-75 years) adults' comprehension for real-world warnings via a verification test presented immediately after reading the warnings or after a delay. In Experiment 2, younger (18-22 years) and older (64-76 years) participants also read fabricated warnings that were inconsistent with real-world knowledge. In both experiments, older adults frequently failed to infer the correct hazard and safety information. The older adults also had trouble understanding warning information even when it was explicitly stated (when no inferences were required), especially when memory demands were high and product-specific knowledge could not be used. That many of the older adults did not understand commonly used product warnings indicates that the wording on many household products is not conducive to being understood by everyone who uses them. Actual or potential applications of this research include the recommendation that designers of product labels, warnings, and instructions should consider minimizing memory load and maximizing opportunities for knowledge application when designing consumer warnings.     

The role of situation assessment and flight experience in pilots' decisions to continue visual flight rules flight into adverse weather

Visual flight rules (VFR) flight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) is a major safety hazard in general aviation. In this study we examined pilots' decisions to continue or divert from a VFR flight into IMC during a dynamic simulation of a cross-country flight. Pilots encountered IMC either early or later into the flight, and the amount of time and distance pilots flew into the adverse weather prior to diverting was recorded. Results revealed that pilots who encountered the deteriorating weather earlier in the flight flew longer into the weather prior to diverting and had more optimistic estimates of weather conditions than did pilots who encountered the deteriorating weather later in the flight. Both the time and distance traveled into the weather prior to diverting were negatively correlated with pilots' previous flight experience. These findings suggest that VFR flight into IMC may be attributable, at least in part, to poor situation assessment and experience rather than to motivational judgment that induces risk-taking behavior as more time and effort are invested in a flight. Actual or potential applications of this research include the design of interventions that focus on improving weather evaluation skills in addition to addressing risk-taking attitudes.     

Effective scheduling of local interactive processes and parallel processes in a non-dedicated cluster environment

This paper presents a performance evaluation of the interactions between local sequential processes running on behalf of interactive applications and parallel processes running as part of an overall parallel application on a non-dedicated cluster environment. To control the interactions between the two types of processes we propose to constrain the scheduling of local interactive processes (IPs) by a measure of the maximum response time (MRT) expected by the workstation (WS) user. The measure is assumed obtained through empirical studies. We propose a mathematical model of the scheduling problem based on the usage of the MRT measure. In addition, we propose a scheduling scheme that within the MRT cycle computes the time quanta needed to satisfy the requirements of both local IPs and the parallel task process present in the system. A colored Petri net (CPN) is used to model the scheduling scheme. Simulations of the CPN model and numerical results have shown the effectiveness of the proposed scheduling scheme in allowing the parallel task to ensure a minimum speedup even in heavy-loaded situations and to maximize the speedup adaptively depending on load conditions. In addition the simulation results revealed the sensitivity of the interactions to factors such as interactive job demand, parallel job demand, and arrival rate of interactive jobs among other. Finally, simulation and analytical results have been found to agree nicely thus confirming the correctness of the proposed analytical model.     

The working capacity of rural,urban and service personnel in the Sudan

An analysis of work capacity has been made in men from different communities in the Sudan (rural agricultural workers, sedentary townsmen and physically-trained service personnel) in order to establish the level of working capacity (V0₂ max) in the normal healthy Sudanese population. There were no differences in the general health and nutritional status of the subjects. The servicemen had attained a greater physical development and exhibited the highest maximal aerobic capacity. There were no statistically significant differences in stature, absolute V0₂ max and KO₂max calculated in terms of body weight, lean body mass or leg volume between rural and urban dwellers. When corrected for body weight or lean body mass the aerobic capacity of the servicemen was similar to agricultural workers but significantly greater than the townsmen.