CLAM钢穿孔等离子超声电弧焊接激励频率的优化

为了优化超声电弧焊接激励频率,针对穿孔等离子超声电弧焊接熔池进行了计算机模态分析.根据穿孔等离子弧焊接特点,利用特定的数值分析模型,通过ANSYS软件计算超声电弧焊接熔池模态,分析与模态频率相对应的熔池响应情况.最后,分别施加不同大小的超声电弧频率,以3组4.5 mm厚的中国低活化马氏体(CLAM)钢板为实验材料进行平板对接焊试验.结果表明:在谐振条件下,焊缝区面积增大,组织的细化效果较好,界面棒状碳化物生长得到抑制,同时焊缝区硬化现象得到显著改善;利用这种方法基本达到了超声电弧频率优化的目的.     

Laser power coupling efficiency in conduction and keyhole welding of austenitic stainless steel

Laser welding of thin sheets of AISI 304 stainless steel was carried out with high power CW CO₂ laser. The laser power utilized in the welding process was estimated using the experimental results and the dimensionless parameter model for laser welding; and also the energy balance equation model. Variation of laser welding efficiency with welding speed and mode of welding was studied. Welding efficiency was high for high-speed conduction welding of thin sheets and also in keyhole welding process at high laser powers. Effect of pre-oxidization of the surface and powder as filler material on laser power coupling is also reported. The paper also discusses effect of microstructure on the cracking susceptibility of laser welds.     

Theoretical analysis of shunting effect in resistance spot welding (RSW) of AA2219

Shunting effect is the loss of electrical current via the secondary circuit provided due to existence of previous nugget in a series of welding spots. This phenomenon is important for products containing intermittent spots. In this study, a theoretical model is developed for shunting effect in resistance spot welding for aluminum alloy 2219. Welding distance together with welding current and time is included in the model to analyze the shunting effect on final nugget quality. Thermal and electrical interactions are considered in the model as well as geometrical aspects of the process. Temperature dependence of material properties, integration through the whole volume of the nugget and heat-affected zone, and assuming a simple cooling mechanism are the most important modifications designated in the proposed theoretical model. Predicted results of nugget diameter are compatible with experimental and finite element analysis results.     

Measurement of Solder/Copper Interfacial Thermal Resistance by the Flash Technique

A feasibility study was conducted to determine the interfacial thermal resistance (ITR) in both bi- and tri-layered eutectic lead–tin solder/copper specimens by the flash technique. The solder/copper ITR results of the two sets of specimen showed excellent agreement. The values were found to range from 0.011 to 0.033K·cm²·W⁻¹ with an average of about 0.020 K·cm²· W⁻¹. The variation was attributed primarily to the imperfection of the solder/copper bonding established by scanning acoustic microscopy.     

Reduction of residual stress and deformation in electron beam welding by using multiple beam technique

The electron beam could be controlled by magnetic field for fast deflection, in which way multi-beam could be produced by deflection technique. The multi-beams run simultaneously for material processing with different heat input and positions. Therefore, it is possible to adjust the thermal effects and optimize the process. In this paper, the generation of multi-beams in electron beam welding (EBW) was investigated, and the processes of EBW with multi-beams were also investigated by both the numerical simulation methods, i.e., finite element analysis (FEA), and the experiments. The result shows that the residual stress of EBW could be minimized by using the multiple beam technique, and at the same time the welding deformation could also be reduced with the optimized parameters.     

Numerical simulation of linear friction welding of titanium alloy: Effects of processing parameters

Numerical modeling of linear friction welding (LFW) of TC4 titanium alloy was conducted using ABAQUS/Explicit with a 2D model. The coupled thermo-mechanical analysis was performed with the Johnson–Cook material model. The effects of processing parameters on the temperature evolution and axial shortening of LFW joints were numerically investigated. It is shown that the temperature at the interface can first increase quickly to about 1000 °C within 1 s, then increases slowly, and finally tends to become uniform across the interface under certain processing conditions. The temperature gradient across the joint from the interface is very high during the friction process. Consequently, significant axial shortening and fast formation of flash start to happen as the interface temperature becomes more uniform. During cooling, the interface temperature decreases steeply at a rate of several hundred degrees per second because of the fast heat conduction to the cold end of the specimen. The temperature distribution appears to be uniform in the joint after about 30 s. At a higher oscillation frequency, the interface temperature rises more quickly and the axial dimension shortens more and at a faster rate. The same phenomena are observed for the amplitude and friction pressure. The effects of these three factors can be integrated into one parameter of heat input. The axial shortening increases with increasing heat input almost linearly as the heat input exceeds a critical value.     

6082-T6回填式搅拌摩擦点焊热-流耦合分析

为了解释了回填式搅拌摩擦点焊的连接机理,本文根据6082-T6铝合金回填式搅拌摩擦点焊焊接过程的特点,建立了简化的热源模型,利用有限元分析软件ANSYS模拟出焊接过程中的温度场,进而耦合得到其应力场.结果表明:随着焊接过程的进行,铝合金6082-T6最高温度分布在袖筒1/2处,焊点处粘塑性金属的最大流动速度出现在铝合金上表面袖筒内侧区域;通过分析模拟过程中流体流动的流线与试验测量所得接头形貌照片,得到流场的分布规律.     

薄板优化设计的二次性态模型法

 在结构优化设计过程中,结构重分析的数值计算常常是主要的工作量.为了提高优化效率,必须减少结构重分析次数.采用一种称为“性态模型法”的近似重分析法时,完整的结构重分析次数将显著减少,重分析次数仅与变量数n成线性关系.此外,以往的薄板优化得到的是阶梯形的板厚分布,利用虚拟层合板单元的有限元计算得到的是连续性的板厚分布,因此更具合理性.几个经典算例说明了性态模型法在优化设计中的有效性和实用性.     

Burnthrough prediction in pipeline welding

Welding of branch connections on gas pipelines at full line pressure is frequently an operational necessity. Weld parameters must be selected so that heat inputs are low enough to avoid burnthrough yet not so low that hydrogen-assisted cold cracking occurs. Current techniques rely on the observation that burnthrough does not occur if peak temperatures on the inner surface are kept below 980^°C. At these temperatures, rate-dependent flow is the dominant mechanism. The problem is one of creep rupture occurring at temperatures in excess of 980^°C with times of the order of seconds. Material constitutive models for the analysis of welding must include both rate-dependent and rate-independent plastic flow as well as the effects of phase transformations. Material properties at elevated temperatures are usually not available for pipeline steels and must be extrapolated from values at lower temperatures. An exploratory study using 3D thermal-mechanical finite element analysis of welding on pressurized vessels is presented and includes comparisons with experiment. The agreement is encouraging. The material failure does occur in appropriate locations but the predictions are generally overconservative. Estimated material properties, especially damage and rupture properties at high temperatures could be improved. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Two kinds of tube elements for transient thermal–structural analysis of large space structures

Two kinds of thin‐walled tube elements are presented for transient thermal–structural analysis of large space structures by the finite element method. Not only the average temperature, but also the perturbation temperature in the cross‐section of the tube is considered in the present elements. These two temperatures are decoupled in the deduction about the new elements and the non‐linear analysis is restricted to solving the equations of average temperature. Therefore, the magnitude of the non‐linear analysis can be reduced by the presented method. The main difference between the two kinds of thin‐walled tube elements is in the shape functions of the temperature along the circumference of cross‐section. Corresponding to the transient temperature field, quasistatic thermo‐elastic analysis is also introduced. Three examples are shown and the effectiveness of the new elements is discussed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

不同焊接参数下CT70连续钢管高频电阻焊残余应力分布的数值模拟

目的研究CT70连续油管高频电阻焊接后的残余应力值和分布规律,以及焊接速度和挤压量等焊接参数对残余应力的影响。方法通过有限元计算的方法施加移动面热源和移动挤压辊,来模拟高频电阻焊的加热和加压过程,并用小孔法测量了高频电阻焊后连续钢管的残余应力值。结果对比计算的和实际的焊缝尺寸,均是内壁处为0.2 mm,壁厚中间部位为0.1 mm,内壁凸起高度为1.0 mm,宽度为2.1 mm,验证了有限元模型的准确性。计算得到的高频电阻焊后在焊缝处的轴向残余应力较大,在400～500MPa之间;环向残余应力较小,在-100～200MPa之间,与小孔法测量的残余应力一致。结论焊缝附近的残余应力主要由不均匀加热引起,远离焊缝处的残余应力主要由挤压引起。热源与挤压辊间距离和焊接速度增加会导致焊缝附近的残余应力增加;挤压量增加和焊接功率增加会导致焊缝附近的残余应力降低。     

Numerical simulation of fluid flow and temperature field in keyhole double‐sided arc welding process on stainless steel

Double‐sided arc welding process powered by a single supply is a type of novel high‐production process. In comparison with the conventional single‐sided arc welding, this process has remarkable advantages in enhancing penetration, minimizing distortion and improving welding production. In this paper, a three‐dimensional steady numerical model is developed for the heat transfer and fluid flow in plasma arc (PA)–gas tungsten arc (GTA) double‐sided keyhole welding process. The model considers the surface tension gradient, electromagnetic force and buoyancy force. A CCD camera is used to observe the size and shape of the keyhole and weld pool. The acquired images are analysed through image processing to obtain the surface diameters of the keyhole on the two sides. A double‐V‐shaped keyhole geometry is then proposed and its characteristic parameters are derived from the images and cross‐section of weld bead. In the numerical model, the keyhole cavum within the weld pool is treated as a whole quality, whose temperature is fixed at the boiling point of the workpiece material. The heat exchange between the keyhole and weld pool is treated as an interior boundary of the workpiece. Based on the numerical model, the distributions of the fluid flow and temperature field are calculated. A comparison of cross‐section of the weld bead with the experimental result shows that the numerical model's accuracy is reasonable. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Post-impact behaviour of aerospace composites for high-temperature applications: experiments and simulations

The post-impact performance of different carbon-fabric-reinforced composite materials were studied experimentally and analytically. Three types of thermosetting matrix were considered: conventional epoxy, high-temperature curing epoxy and epoxy-isocyanate. Experimental testing consisted of impacting rectangular specimens at different energy levels by using a spring-driven impact apparatus that was able to impart velocities of up to 5 m s⁻¹ to masses of 0.5, 1.0, 2.5 and 5.0 kg travelling horizontally. After impact, coupons were non-destructively inspected by means of opaque-enhanced dye-penetrant X-radiography and tested in static compression to correlate impact energy, damage extent and residual strength. Epoxy composites contain damage within a narrow region, while epoxy-isocyanate materials propagate the damage far away from impact point. Epoxy composites show an asymptotically decreasing failure strength with impact energy up to a lower threshold (0.3–0.4 times that of the undamaged material), while epoxy-isocyanate material shows a trend of ever decreasing residual strength. An analytical study was performed by means of the finite element code PAM-FISS, used to simulate the compression-after-impact (CAI) tests. Type, size and location of damage, as well as the mechanisms leading to final failure, were reproduced quite well by the finite element analysis (FEA), while some discrepancies between FEA and experimental CAI residual strength tests were found (7% for undamaged specimens and 10% for blister-delaminated specimens); higher errors were found in the case of completely delaminated specimens, mainly owing to the inability of the present software and hardware to conveniently model the complete state of damage.     

Modelling and estimation of tensile behaviour of polylactic acid parts manufactured by fused deposition modelling using finite element analysis and knowledge-based library

With the rise of the Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) industry, a better understanding of the relationship between FDM process parameters and mechanical behaviour —especially tensile behaviour —of designed parts is needed to enable development of industry specifications. To optimise and control the deposition process, modelling and predicting the mechanical behaviour of a manufactured part under various process parameters is required. Existing numerical modelling approaches either require input of extensive experimental data or lack cross-validation. In this paper, the mechanical behaviour of polylactic acid manufactured parts under tensile conditions was studied both experimentally and numerically, and the effects of printing pattern and infill density on ultimate tensile strength (UTS)-weight ratio and the modulus of elasticity were evaluated. The experimental results revealed that minimising air gaps and using a triangular infill pattern are beneficial for obtaining a good UTS/weight ratio. Of all the specimens considered, the 20% triangular pattern had the highest UTS/weight ratio. The numerical investigation revealed that the meso-structure approach described in this paper can be used to predict the modulus of elasticity and the breaking point, and does not require input from the unidirectional specimen stress-strain curves. Finally, the meso-structure numerical model and artificial neural network were used to construct a knowledge-based library that can predict the modulus of elasticity of FDM manufactured polylactic acid with three infill patterns and any infill density with an average prediction error of 14.80%.     

Virtual Experiment Design for the Transient Hot-Bridge Sensor

The development of stable, highly sensitive sensors for measuring the thermal transport properties of a wide range of materials requires a detailed evaluation of all the effects having an impact on the measurement result. The virtual experiment design (VED), which is based on the simulation of potential experiments, offers a powerful tool to design and optimize new measurement configurations such as, for example, the transient hot-bridge sensor. The main effects of the applied simplified data analysis on the measurement uncertainty, i.e., the strip configuration, the neglected insulating foil, the linearized analysis and the shortened measurement time, are analyzed. All factors are found to be tolerable with respect to the total measurement uncertainty. Paper presented at the Seventeenth European Conference on Thermophysical Properties, September 5-8, 2005, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.     

Development and application of software packages in welding engineering

The weldability of some material is analyzed with simple calculating program in this paper, and weldability testing data are shared through database system. The welding procedures are designed with help of expert systems, and the knowledge is shared among welding engineers. Not only the preparing progress of the welding documents is completed with database systems but also the complex decision on the necessity of the qualification test according to the present procedure qualification records (PQRs) and manufacture codes is made. Moreover, the artificial neural network (ANN) technique is proven to be one of the effective ways to predict mechanical properties of welded joints when there are enough tested data to train the models. Finally, the achievements in modeling microstructure of welded joints are introduced, especially in solid transformation and grain growth in both heat-affected zone (HAZ) and welded molten pool.     

过冷熔体凝固行为的自适应有限元相场法模拟

通过自适应有限元法求解相场模型,对过冷熔体中自由枝晶生长行为进行了数值模拟.自适应有限元法可减少计算量,提高求解速度,并同时降低存储空间的需求.模拟结果表明,随着各向异性系数ε4的增加,枝晶生长速度Vtip线性增大,而尖端半径rtip以指数方式减小.进一步研究表明界面稳定性系数σ*随各向异性系数ε4的增大而增大.     

Theoretical prediction of welding distortion in large and complex structures

Welding technology is widely used to assemble large thin plate structures such as ships, automobiles, and passenger trains because of its high productivity. However, it is impossible to avoid welding-induced distortion during the assembly process. Welding distortion not only reduces the fabrication accuracy of a weldment, but also decreases the productivity due to correction work. If welding distortion can be predicted using a practical method beforehand, the prediction will be useful for taking appropriate measures to control the dimensional accuracy to an acceptable limit. In this study, a two-step computational approach, which is a combination of a thermo-elastic-plastic finite element method (FEM) and an elastic finite element with consideration for large deformation, is developed to estimate welding distortion for large and complex welded structures. Welding distortions in several representative large complex structures, which are often used in shipbuilding, are simulated using the proposed method. By comparing the predictions and the measurements, the effectiveness of the two-step computational approach is verified.     

Through‐wall welding residual stress profiles for dissimilar metal nozzle butt welds in pressurized water reactors

This paper provides approximate expressions for through‐wall welding residual stresses in dissimilar metal nozzle butt welds of pressurized water reactors. An idealized shape of nozzle is proposed, based on which systematic elastic–plastic thermo‐mechanical finite element analyses are conducted by varying the thickness and radius of the nozzle and the length of the safe‐end. Based on the results, a through‐wall welding residual stress profile for dissimilar metal nozzle butt welds is proposed by modifying the existing welding residual stress profile for austenitic pipe butt welds in the R6 procedure.     

Numerical investigation on welding residual stresses in a PWR pressurizer safety/relief nozzle

This paper presents finite element simulation results of residual stresses in dissimilar metal welds of a PWR pressurizer safety/relief nozzle. The present results are believed to be significant in two aspects. The first one is to consider the effect of the presence of similar metal welds on resulting residual stresses. The second one is the mitigation effect of the overlay welding thickness on residual stresses. After dissimilar metal welding, tensile residual stresses are present both at the inner surface and at the outer surface of dissimilar metal welds. Adjacent similar metal welding, however, decreases residual stresses to compressive ones at the inner surface of dissimilar metal welds, possibly due to the bending mechanism caused radial contraction of the weld. At the outer surface of dissimilar metal welds, similar metal welding increases residual stresses. Overlay welding further decreases residual stresses at the inner surface of dissimilar and similar metal welds, but increases slightly residual stresses at the outer surface.