Environmental exposure to thallium

This paper reviews recent data and findings concerning the sources of thallium in the environment and its current environmental levels and exposures, particularly with respect to human exposure. Special emphasis is given to some recent cases of environmental thallium pollution that were recognized around several cement factories in the Federal Republic of Germany. Contaminated food grown in these areas gave rise to a significantly increased thallium exposure of the population living there. Recent studies show that the thallium level in human urine normally is below 1 micrograms/g creatinine and that the normal concentration range of thallium in human air is approximately 5-10 ng/g. These data allow to recognize even minor undue exposure to thallium in the work and general environment.     

Environmental costs of mercury pollution

Mercury (Hg) has been used for millennia in many applications, primarily in artisanal mining and as an electrode in the chlor-alkali industry. It is anthropogenically emitted as a pollutant from coal fired power plants and naturally emitted, primarily from volcanoes. Its unique chemical characteristics enable global atmospheric transport and it is deposited after various processes, ultimately ending up in one of its final sinks, such as incorporated into deep sediment or bioaccumulated, primarily in the marine environment. All forms of Hg have been established as toxic, and there have been no noted biological benefits from the metal. Throughout time, there have been notable incidents of Hg intoxication documented, and the negative health effects have been documented to those chronically or acutely exposed. Today, exposure to Hg is largely diet or occupationally dependent, however, many are exposed to Hg from their amalgam fillings. This paper puts a tentative monetary value on Hg polluted food sources in the Arctic, where local, significant pollution sources are limited, and relates this to costs for strategies avoiding Hg pollution and to remediation costs of contaminated sites in Sweden and Japan. The case studies are compiled to help policy makers and the public to evaluate whether the benefits to the global environment from banning Hg and limiting its initial emission outweigh the benefits from its continued use or lack of control of Hg emissions. The cases we studied are relevant for point pollution sources globally and their remediation costs ranged between 2,500 and 1.1 million US dollars kg(-1) Hg isolated from the biosphere. Therefore, regulations discontinuing mercury uses combined with extensive flue gas cleaning for all power plants and waste incinerators is cost effective.     

冶炼企业降尘中铊等重金属的监测研究分析

选取湖南某地铅锌冶炼企业进行大气降尘中重金属监测研究分析,通过优化集尘缸内径、采样间隔时间等采样条件,监测降尘中的重金属镉、锌、铅、铊含量,计算土壤中一年内重金属新增质量比,反映涉重冶炼企业环境空气中的铊及其他重金属污染情况。结果表明,内径30cm的集尘缸降尘收集效率高于内径15cm;夏季采样间隔时间7d、冬季采样间隔时间15～30d能较客观反映企业废气中降尘量及重金属含量;试验地区大气降尘中铊的含量为208mg/kg,超出背景值340倍,其他重金属含量均值超过湖南区域背景值,大气降尘作用导致土壤中重金属铊超标的累积时间约需4年,镉超标的累积时间可能为30年以上。     

Tissue, age, and sex distribution of thallium in shrews from Doñana, a protected area in SW Spain

In 1998, the protected area of Do?ana, an important natural region in SW Europe, was affected with great amount of acidic waters and sludge from a pyrite mine loaded with toxic metals such as thallium (Tl). Since this ecological catastrophe, several studies have addressed the effects of this pollution on the flora and fauna in this protected area. However, in contrast to other non-essential metals, scarce information on Tl was available after this disaster, especially in terrestrial environments. This study reported a 3- and 10-fold increase in Tl in liver and kidneys, respectively, of the greater white-toothed shrew, Crocidura russula, in the polluted site in comparison with reference animals. Kidneys showed the highest concentrations of this metal in the polluted site, whereas both organs analysed have similar concentrations in the reference site. Although no significant age-dependent variation was found, adults had higher concentrations than juveniles. Moreover, females showed higher concentrations than males. These results demonstrate the high entrance and transfer of Tl in terrestrial food-chains. To the best of my knowledge, these data constitute the first measurements of Tl in mammals from the protected area of Do?ana and are among the few available for insectivorous mammals.     

Toxicokinetic aspects of thallium poisoning. Methods of treatment by toxin elimination

The elimination techniques which are used in the treatment of thallium poisoning are evaluated in toxicokinetic perspective. Prussian Blue therapy and forced diuresis are effective in the treatment of acute as well as subacute thallium intoxications. Both elimination techniques can be applied without danger from neurological side effects. Generally, the combined use of these techniques is recommended. Since obstipation as well as renal impairment are common in thallium poisoning, extracorporal elimination techniques are of additional importance. In particular, charcoal haemoperfusion has proven to be successful in the elimination of thallium from the body, especially in the early phase of the intoxication.     

The mine tailing accident in Aznalcollar

Massive amounts of acidic waters and mud (pH approximately 3) containing toxic metals such as zinc, lead, arsenic, copper, antimony, cobalt, thallium, bismuth, cadmium, silver, mercury and selenium were released in the surroundings of Do?ana Park as a consequence of the mine tailings spill accident in Aznalcollar (SW Spain). This introductory paper describes the main characteristics of Do?ana Park, the mine activities developed in Aznalcollar and their related environmental risks. The tailing spill accident and the first package of urgent actions undertaken for preventive and mitigation purposes are also summarized.     

Effluent Control: The Hong Kong Approach

Water pollution has existed for many years in Hong Kong, but the Government's strategy for pollution control is now beginning to take effect. The strategy includes planning, legislation, and the provision of sewage-disposal systems. In the past, the main thrust has been against traditional pollutants measured by BOD, suspended solids and various nutrients, but as these are brought under control, attention will be given to the need to control toxic pollutants. The existing policy and legislation does not deal with toxic pollutants well, and past work on toxic substances in Hong Kong has concentrated on individual chemicals. The Environmental Protection Department is now seeking to (a) develop ecotoxicological expertise to identify toxicant pathways in the environment, (b) introduce water-quality objectives for toxic substances which it can monitor effectively, and (c) improve standards for effluent control.     

灭火防护服烟气污染及其洗消研究

通过模拟灭火防护服在火场暴露的烟气污染情形,研究烟气颗粒在灭火防护服装上的附着方式以及各层面料间的污染特征,探讨洗涤工艺对各层面料污染物的去除效率.结果显示,烟气颗粒除直接污染服装阻燃层表面外,还通过服装开口污染舒适内层.而舒适内层的污染主要为小于2μm的烟颗粒污染物,且更容易在层间进行蔓延扩散.不同面料的毒害污染物浓...     

Fish cough response—a method for evaluating quality of treated complex effluents

Bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) showed increases in cough frequency commensurate with effluent concentration when exposed for 24 h to different industrial and municipal effluents. Effluents known to be toxic caused steadily increasing cough rates in the fish as effluent concentration approached acutely toxic levels. Bluegills exposed to three different samples of effluent, collected from the same source over an 8-month period, showed decreased levels of cough rate as the effluent improved in quality. Cough frequency is a rapid and sensitive physiological characteristic for evaluating the quality of industrial and municipal effluents and variation in quality of same-source effluents before discharge into receiving waters.     

饮用水水源水质健康风险评价及对策

采用水质健康风险评价模型,对佛山主要水源——北江多年来的水质监测资料进行了分析和评价.结果表明:北江流域水质健康总风险值较高;水质健康风险沿北江先增大后又有所下降,最高值出现在主城区河段.基因毒物质是造成北江水质健康风险值高的主要污染物质,其中Cr的健康风险值最高,其次为As和Cd.对于躯体毒物质,主要风险来源于Hg、Pb、NH,三种污染物;氨的风险值呈增加趋势,2004年以后取代Hg成为主要的躯体毒物质风险源.针对北江水源的水质健康风险特点,提出了相应对策.     

Multi-elemental analysis of jet engine lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids and their implication in aircraft air quality incidents.

The flight crews of aircraft often report symptoms including dizziness, nausea, disorientation, blurred vision and tingling in legs and arms. Many of these incidents have been traced to contamination of cabin air with lubricating oil, as well as hydraulic fluid, constituents. Considering that these air contaminants are often subjected to temperatures in excess of 500 degrees C, a large number of different exposures can be expected. Although the reported symptoms are most consistent with exposures to volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, and the organophosphate constituents in these oils and fluids, the involvement of these agents has not been clearly demonstrated. Possible exposure to toxic elements, such as lead, mercury, thallium and others, have not been ruled out. In order to assess the potential of exposure to toxic elements a multi-elemental analysis was done on two hydraulic fluids and three lubricating oils which have been implicated in a number of air quality incidents. A secondary objective was to establish if the multi-elemental concentrations of the fluids tested are different enough to allow such an analysis to be used as a possible method of identifying the source of exposure that might have been present during aircraft air quality incidents. No significant concentrations of toxic elements were identified in any of the oils or hydraulic fluids. The elemental compositions of the samples were different enough to be used for identification purposes and the measurement of only three elements was able to achieve this. Whether these findings have an application, in aircraft air quality incident investigations, needs to be established with further studies.     

Relationships between heterotrophic bacteria and pollution in an industrialized estuary

Numbers and activities of heterotrophic bacteria and environmental variables related to pollution were measured in water samples from the Humber estuary. In general, bacterial numbers and activities were positively correlated with organic pollution and there was no evidence of widespread inhibition of self-purification by toxic pollution. At one site, however, which was adjacent to a discharge of metal refinery effluent, correlations between bacteria and indicators of organic pollution tended to disappear, high levels of Cu, Pb and Zn were recorded and bacterial activities were negatively correlated with heavy metals. These observations suggest that toxic pollution caused local inhibition of bacteria.     

The environmental Kuznets curve for US counties: A spatial econometric analysis with extensions

We examine the relationship between county per capita income and toxic pollutants using a comprehensive model of the Environmental Kuznets Curve. The model incorporates ethnic diversity, spatial effects and most independent variables used in previous studies. Initial results suggest that the relationship follows an inverted-U-shape. However, incorporation of a cubic term for income reveals that toxic pollution eventually increases again as income continues to rise. Ethnic diversity and spatial effects are found to be important in understanding toxic pollution in US counties. We also detect an EKC-type relationship with respect to income inequality.Received: 25 January 2002, Accepted: 8 March 2003, JEL Classification: R11, Q20The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the US Department of Agriculture under NRI Grant No. 00-5401-9320, as well as the comments of three anonymous reviewers. An earlier version of this article was presented at the North American Regional Science Association meetings in Charleston, SC in November 2001.     

Voltammetry in the analysis of atmospheric pollutants: The determination of toxic trace metals in rain water and snow by differential pulse stripping voltammetry

A new particularly sensitive and reliable procedure to determine trace metal levels in rain and snow is presented. The simultaneous determination of Cu, Pb, Cd and Zn by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) and of Se by differential pulse cathodic stripping voltammetry (DPCSV) at the hanging mercury drop electrode(HMDE) demonstrates the versatile potentialities of this approach to follow trace metal levels in the dissolved state and that bound to particulate matter associated with rain water and snow. Applications of the method have emphasized the significance of rain and snow for transport of toxic trace metals from the atmosphere to terrestrial and marine biota. Results of regional significance from investigations on the time function of toxic trace metal levels during rain periods, until constant values are attained, are reported. Further regional studies were related to the influences of meteorological parameters (wind), the location of pollution sources and the daily amounts of toxic trace metal input to the ground during longer rain falls. The results obtained suggest that over 90% of the precipitated trace metals are dissolved in rain water and that snow is a particular efficient medium to remove trace metals from the atmosphere to the ground. General aspects of a surveillance network for toxic metal pollution of atmospheric precipitates by the presented low cost procedure are discussed.     

Toxicity of the cyanobacterium Limnothrix AC0243 to male Balb/c mice

A growing list of freshwater cyanobacteria are known to produce toxic agents, a fact which makes these organisms of concern to water authorities. A cultured strain of Limnothrix (AC0243) was recently shown to have toxic effects in in vitro bioassays. It did not produce any of the known cyanobacterial toxins. The intrapertoneal toxicity of aqueous extracts of the material was therefore tested in mice to determine whether the observed effects might be of public health relevance to drinking water supplies. The results indicate that Limnothrix AC0243 is acutely toxic to mice, causing widespread cellular necrosis in the liver, kidneys and gastrointestinal tract within 24 h of exposure. Sub-lethal effects lasted at least 7 d. These results suggest that Limnothrix AC0243 produces a novel toxin ("Limnothrixin") and that further work is therefore urgently required to quantify the potential public health implications.     

Virus survival in solid waste leachates

Disposal of domestic solid waste either in open dumps or in sanitary landfills results in leachates which may find their way into groundwater aquifers. This study is concerned with the survival of microorganisms of sanitary significance, with particular emphasis on enteric viruses, in leachates produced by model disposal systems. Data are presented that indicate the presence of considerable amounts of human and animal feces in fresh domestic refuse. Significant numbers of coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci are present in refuse and also persist for weeks in the leachates produced.A method for the concentration and recovery of virus from relatively large volumes of leachate is evaluated. Viruses were sporadically recovered for periods up to 20 weeks from leachates generated by systems to which poliovirus was purposely introduced as well as from control systems. The leachates produced were shown not to be acutely toxic to poliovirus.     

Dinoflagellate cyst records and human disturbance in two neighboring estuaries,New Bedford Harbor and Apponagansett Bay,Massachusetts (USA)

The dinoflagellate cyst records in sediments from New Bedford Harbor and Apponagansett Bay demonstrate sensitivity to environmental change caused by human activity in the watersheds over the last 500 years. Changes in the species richness, as well as absolute and relative abundance of dinoflagellate cyst taxa reflect recent periods of development around the estuaries. Cyst taxa sensitive to these changes include Dubridinium spp., Polykrikos schwartzii, Lingulodinium machaerophorum, Operculodinium israelianum and Selenopemphix quanta. The greatest changes in the dinoflagellate cyst record occur during the 20th century, when New Bedford Harbor was exposed to both toxic pollution and heavy nutrient loading from point and non-point sources. Apponagansett Bay was not subject to industrial pollution and nutrient enrichment has been lower (from non-point sources). In Apponagansett Bay there is an increase in the dinoflagellate cyst species richness while species richness first increased, then declined in New Bedford Harbor. During the same period, the total dinoflagellate cyst concentration in New Bedford Harbor fluctuated over a wide range. The decline of species richness and the large fluctuations in the total cyst abundances signal the intensified anthropogenic disturbance in the watershed, notably a high degree of eutrophication and toxic pollution.     

斑马鱼生物学效应的研究进展及在水质监测中的应用

主要从不同污染物胁迫介绍了斑马鱼的呼吸行为、运动行为、群体行为等行为学效应,以及个体、器官、细胞、分子等多种水平的毒理效应,同时对斑马鱼行为学和毒理效应在水质监测和水环境评价方面的应用做出介绍和展望,得出综合斑马鱼的行为变化和毒理效应两个方面能更准确地表征水体污染类型及污染程度。     

The effect of sewage and industrial waste discharges on the primary production of a shallow turbulent river

Sewage and industrial waste discharges have been found to have a deleterious effect on the primary productivity of the shallow turbulent tropical river Khan (Indore) India. Even though net primary production rates have exceeded the respiration rates in the early recovery zone, the industrial wastes and sewage discharges have been found to decrease the overall productivity of the river. The above studies have been compared with other investigations in the temperate regions of the world, which generally refer to the effects of organic pollution on the primary productivity of the running waters. The present investigations lead to a generalized observation that in tropical running waters, toxic industrial wastes and sewage discharges have a depressing effect on the overall production rates. However, comparable studies in the temperate regions are nonexistent, as the studies in the temperate regions mainly refer to organic pollution and do not take into account the effects of toxic industrial waste and sewage discharges.     

Seasonal variation of thallium, lead, and chromium concentrations in airborne particulate matter collected in an urban area

In November 1985 a research program started, with the aim to evaluate seasonal variations in the concentrations of organic and inorganic pollutants in the atmosphere of Genoa. The program provided for the collection of samples of airborne particulate in five different areas with distinct urban characteristics. First results for chromium, lead, and thallium concentrations in an industrial and in an urban area are reported. Lead showed the highest concentration at both locations (geometric mean: 1.037 and 0.476 microgram/m3, respectively) and appeared to be little affected by seasonal variation. Private traffic was confirmed as the main source of this pollutant. Chromium and thallium geometric mean concentrations were 0.006 and 0.014 microgram/m3 in site A and 0.017 and 0.015 microgram/m3 in site B, respectively. In the urban location a good negative linear correlation was found between chromium and thallium concentration and mean ambient temperature; the domestic heating plants were suspected as important emission sources of these two compounds.