Cognitive activity and hypothesis formation during a double entendre word association test as a function of locus of control and field dependence.

Administered Rotter's Internal-External Control scale and a rod-and-frame measure of field dependence to 65 male undergraduates. Ss awareness of sexual double extendres within a word association test was measured by means of response time, verbal content of responses, and video-taped facial expressions. It was found that internal, field-independent Ss were aware earlier in the task, tested out their developing hypothesis about the list, became more mirthful, and were less puzzled as the task progressed than their more external counterparts. Various statistical interactions indicate the greatest difference between external, field-dependent Ss and all other groups. It is concluded that internals have more extensive cognitive processes which explain their greater independence from social demands. (French summary) (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analysis of Residential Framing Accidents, Activities, and Task Demands

Framing contractors have the highest rate of nonfatal incidents among specialty contractors. This case study analyzes 654 safety incidents that occurred over a period of 5??years in a large residential framing company. Accident analysis and interviews with safety and production experts identify the high-risk tasks, the errors that lead to incidents, and the task factors that increase the likelihood of incidents. The analysis resulted in a framework of five task factors that increase the task demands: (1) working platform constraints; (2) ergonomic postures constraints; (3) material/load handling requirements; (4) tool use/accuracy requirements; and (5) difficulties due to external forces. The combined effect of these factors determines the task difficulty and the likelihood of incidents. The paper discusses safety measures to reduce the task demands of the high-risk tasks, as opposed to measures that reduce exposure or mitigate the consequences. Reducing task demands can reduce the likelihood of accidents while at the same time increasing productivity. For practitioners, the study points to the need to understand the high-risk tasks and reduce task demands in their operations. The framework of the five task demand factors provides the “building blocks” of task difficulty for framing tasks and provides directions for further research in understanding and mitigating the combined effect of the task demand factors.     

Task-set switching and long-term memory retrieval.

The authors tested the hypothesis of a close relationship between the intentional component of task-set switching ("advance reconfiguration;" R. D. Rogers & S. Monsell, 1995) and long-term memory (LTM) retrieval. Consistent with this hypothesis, switch costs are reported to be larger when the switched-to task involves high retrieval demands (i.e., retrieval of episodic information) than when it involves low retrieval demands (i.e., retrieval of semantic information). In contrast, switch costs were not affected by a primary-task difficulty manipulation unrelated to intentional retrieval demands (Experiment 2). Also, the retrieval-demand effect on switch costs was eliminated when time for advanced preparation or task cues explicitly specifying the task rules were provided (Experiment 3). Overall, results were consistent with the hypothesis that the intentional switch-cost component reflects the time demands of retrieving appropriate task rules from LTM. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Distributing working memory resources during problem solving.

This study examines how problem solvers distribute working memory demands over internal and external resources. Participants recorded notes while performing an arithmetic task. They recorded a majority of intermediate results and labeled many of those results (e.g., "C?=?10"). When more effort was required to take notes, participants recorded fewer results. Participants with a consistent goal structure recorded fewer results and with practice labeled fewer recorded results than those with varied goal structures. When notes were displayed in a consistent spatial arrangement participants labeled fewer recorded results than when notes appeared in varied locations. These findings indicate that individuals use explicit and implicit strategies for indexing intermediate results. The data support the view that individuals flexibly distribute working memory over internal and external resources in response to situational cost-benefit considerations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are there two kinds of thinking in process and reactive schizophrenics?

Presents a tentative formulation suggesting qualitative differences between process and reactive schizophrenics. The cognitive deficit of reactive schizophrenics is due to fragmentation of relatively normal thinking under stress or during acute disturbance (i.e., on admission). The fragmentation is suggested to result from interference due to excessive responsiveness to external stimuli and task demands. The process schizophrenics are viewed as idiosyncratic (underdeveloped) in thinking, with their performance hampered by emotional withdrawal and disruption from internal stimuli. Interactions of the process-reactive dimension with stress conditions and institutionalization are inferred, since reactives' performance should vary with stress and time since admission, while processes' performance should remain consistently low. Results of 11 studies from the context of the position are presented. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of practice on the functional anatomy of task performance

The effects of practice on the functional anatomy observed in two different tasks, a verbal and a motor task, are reviewed in this paper. In the first, people practiced a verbal production task, generating an appropriate verb in response to a visually presented noun. Both practiced and unpracticed conditions utilized common regions such as visual and motor cortex. However, there was a set of regions that was affected by practice. Practice produced a shift in activity from left frontal, anterior cingulate, and right cerebellar hemisphere to activity in Sylvian-insular cortex. Similar changes were also observed in the second task, a task in a very different domain, namely the tracing of a maze. Some areas were significantly more activated during initial unskilled performance (right premotor and parietal cortex and left cerebellar hemisphere); a different region (medial frontal cortex, "supplementary motor area") showed greater activity during skilled performance conditions. Activations were also found in regions that most likely control movement execution irrespective of skill level (e.g., primary motor cortex was related to velocity of movement). One way of interpreting these results is in a "scaffolding-storage" framework. For unskilled, effortful performance, a scaffolding set of regions is used to cope with novel task demands. Following practice, a different set of regions is used, possibly representing storage of particular associations or capabilities that allow for skilled performance. The specific regions used for scaffolding and storage appear to be task dependent.     

Evidence for executive dysfunction in autism

A group of young people with autism (ranging in ability from high functioning to moderately learning disabled), and ability-matched control groups of (i) non-autistic individuals with moderate learning disabilities, and (ii) normally developing children, were presented with two tests of executive function: the Intra-dimensional/Extra-dimensional set-shifting task and the Tower of London planning task. These tests were graded in difficulty and included internal control measures. On each task, the autistic group was differentially impaired with respect to both control groups. Moreover, this impairment was specific to the stages of each task which placed greatest demands upon executive control. This evidence for executive dysfunction in autism is discussed in the context of Norman and Shallice's (Centre for Human Information Processing Technical Report 99, 1980) "Supervisory Attentional System" model of frontal function.     

Formation of a mental abacus for computation and its use as a memory device for digits: A developmental study.

In order to examine whether representational changes in digit memory would be observed as a function of the extent of expertise in mental-abacus operation, five groups of operators, differing in extent of expertise (i.e., novices, lower intermediates, intermediates, junior experts, and experts), were required (a) to reproduce series of five digits either forward or backward as quickly as possible and (b) to perform a simple aural-verbal or visual-spatial task interpolated between the presentation and reproduction of a near-span series of digits. The intermediates and more skilled operators as well as a majority of the lower intermediates showed nearly equal amounts of time for forward and backward reproduction, whereas novices took a much longer time for backward than for forward reproduction. The more skilled operators were, the less vulnerable was their memory for digits to the aural-verbal interpolated task (a relation that was significant) and the more vulnerable to the visual-spatial task (a relation that was insignificant). These results strongly suggest that the advanced operators applied their mental abacus to digit memory. It is claimed that a system of representation formed through routine problem solving is transferred automatically to other cognitive tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety and ineffective test taking: Different names, same construct?

Investigated the relative contributions of test anxiety and exam-taking skills to information-processing deficits in a dual-task paradigm. Under stress instructions, 64 high- and low-test-anxious college students with either good or poor exam-taking skills alternately performed a primary task (Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices) separately and concurrently with a secondary task (a backward digit span test). Results indicate that exam-skilled, high-anxious Ss performed comparably with skilled, low-anxious peers on the primary Raven task, yet significantly worse on the concurrent backward digit span task. Conversely, high-anxious, unskilled Ss were exceeded by low-anxious, unskilled peers on both tasks. Findings suggest that test anxiety and exam-taking ability independently influence cognitive problem solving in the evaluative setting. It is suggested that although good exam skills can compensate for anxiety-induced deficits in working-memory capacity by refocusing attention toward the task, processing deficits still emerge as task demands increase. Measures of state anxiety and cognitive interference further suggest that a negative internal focus, not arousal, underlies such deficits. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple systems for cognitive control: Evidence from a hybrid prime-Simon task.

Cognitive control resolves conflicts between appropriate and inappropriate response tendencies. Is this achieved by a unitary all-purpose conflict control system, or do independent subsystems deal with different aspects of conflicting information? In a fully factorial hybrid prime-Simon task, participants responded to the identity of targets displayed at different nominally irrelevant screen locations, preceded by nominally irrelevant, consciously or nonconsciously perceived primes. The response required by the target's identity could match or mismatch (a) the target's location, and (b) the prime's identity, resulting in potential conflict (a) across and (b) within stimulus domains. Conflict effects were investigated within and across trials. Results suggest that (i) nonconsciously perceived information elicits within-trial control, but—unlike consciously perceived information—no across-trial behavioral modulation; (ii) separate subsystems deal with conflicts arising from different stimulus domains; and (iii) occasional apparent interactions between domains reflect a particular difficulty in reactivating a just-discarded response (reactivation aversion effect, RAE). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A teacher inservice model for problem-solving in classroom discipline: Suggestions for the school psychologist.

Suggests that school psychologists may find themselves faced with the task of conducting teacher inservice workshops on the subject of classroom discipline and discusses the shortcomings of various approaches to teacher training in classroom discipline. Four key principles of a teacher training model are presented for school psychologists' use. The principles focus on the concept of "discipline subsystems" (i.e., instruction, behavior modification, group management/dynamics, and psychodynamic/human relationships). The 4 discipline subsystems are both interrelated and interdependent, such that the functional characteristics of any one subsystem may influence the functional characteristics of other subsystems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of Practice Conditions and Supplemental Training Method on Cognitive Learning and Interpersonal Skill Generalization

Organizational expenditures for interpersonal-skills training have been rising. However, little is known about the translation of cognitive learning into skilled interpersonal-task performance, or about the mechanisms through which interpersonal skills in one domain generalize to other interpersonal tasks. This study used a 2 x 2 experimental design to examine the effectiveness of neutral versus stressful practice conditions and mastery-versus performance-oriented supplemental training for improving cognitive learning and interpersonal-skill transfer to a novel task. Participants who experienced stressful salary-negotiation practice conditions, followed by mastery-oriented supplemental training, showed greater skill transfer when performing a novel task (i.e., contract negotiations). Results showed that superior cognitive learning (i.e., recall, comprehension, and synthesis) and greater time on task were the mechanisms that supported interpersonal-skill transfer for trainees in the stressful practice/ mastery-oriented training condition when compared with the other experimental groups. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.     

Neocortical Disconnectivity Disrupts Sensory Integration in Alzheimer's Disease.

The cortical pathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD) should lead to the loss of effective interaction between distinct neocortical areas. This study compared 2 conditions within a single sensory integration task that differed in the demands placed on effective cross-cortical interaction. AD patients were impaired in their ability to bind distinct visual features of a stimulus when this binding placed greater demands on cross-cortical interaction (i.e., motion and color) but were not impaired when this binding placed lesser demands on such interaction (i.e., motion and luminance). In contrast, neurologically intact individuals and patients with Huntington's disease were able to effectively bind features under both conditions. These results provide psychophysical support for the presence of functional disconnectivity in AD and demonstrate the utility of AD for investigating the neurocognitive substrates of sensory integration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A note on the congruence of the WISC-R and the cognitive development scales of the Personality Inventory for Children.

Assessed the criterion validity of 3 cognitive development scales (Intellectual Screening, Achievement, and Development scales) within the Personality Inventory for Children (PIC) via correlations with the WISC—R. 48 children who were referred to an interdisciplinary university clinic for academic as well as social/emotional difficulties completed the WISC—R, and their parents completed the PIC. Results suggest that the PIC has validity for the task of screening children's cognitive abilities. One unexpected finding suggests that the WISC—R freedom from distractibility factor may reflect sensitivity to internal rather than external stimulation. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal and task-related moderators of leader-member exchange among software developers.

Although earlier studies have shown significant positive relationships between leader-member exchange (LMX) and its outcomes, they have also noted that the effect sizes of these relationships have been modest and heterogeneous. Addressing numerous calls for future studies that examine potential moderators of the LMX-job performance and LMX-job satisfaction relationships and utilizing a multidomain perspective, this study tests the moderating roles of personal (i.e., locus of control) and task-related (i.e., task autonomy) factors on these relationships. The results of an empirical study with a sample of 287 software developers and 164 supervisors participating at a large international information technology exhibition indicated that the LMX-job performance relationship was stronger when employees' locus of control was internal as opposed to when it was external. In addition, it was stronger when task autonomy was high as opposed to when it was low. Moreover, the results suggested that the LMX-job satisfaction relationship was stronger when task autonomy was high as opposed to when it was low. Finally, contrary to theoretical expectations, employees' locus of control did not moderate the LMX-job satisfaction relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal orientation and task demand effects on motivation, affect, and performance.

Two studies tested the joint effects of goal orientation and task demands on motivation, affect, and performance, examining different factors affecting task demands. In Study 1 (N?=?199), task difficulty was found to moderate the effect of goal orientation on performance and affect (i.e., satisfaction with performance). In Study 2 (N?≠&189), task consistency was found to moderate the effect of goal orientation on self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Results are discussed in relation to self-regulatory processes cued by goal orientations, attentional resource demands, and the need to match goal orientations to the nature of the task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in writing: Implications of translating fluency.

Provides theoretical detail for the model of writing proposed by J. R. Hayes and L. S. Flower (1980), particularly in relation to (1) subcomponents of the translating process, specifically the processes of sentence generation and lexical retrieval, and (2) processing constraints imposed by working memory limitations. In 2 experiments the components of the translating process were examined in elementary and middle-school students identified as either skilled or less skilled writers. Skilled writers showed more fluent sentence-generation processes than did less skilled writers; this was revealed in their better performance on reading span and speaking span tasks. Skilled writers were also faster and more accurate than less skilled writers in a lexical decision task thus indicating that lexical retrieval is more fluent for skilled writers. Fluent translating processes may help to reduce working memory load during writing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting creativity in preadolescence from divergent thinking in early childhood.

Administered to 75 children (ages 4 and 5 yrs) 2 divergent-thinking (DT) measures (Instances and Unusual Uses) and 2 conventional tests of general intelligence. Six and 7 yrs later, these Ss—then preadolescents—were evaluated with respect to creativity by their 6th-grade teachers. These creativity evaluations at 11 yrs exhibited substantial discriminant and construct validity and were relatively free of halo effects. A composite score based on the number of high-quality, divergent-thinking responses in childhood (i.e., responses reflecting both imagination and sensitivity to task constraints) correlated significantly with teacher evaluations of preadolescent creativity. This construct-validating correlation, which spanned 6 and 7 yrs and 2 measurement domains, was .45, uncorrected for attenuation. Even more important, this composite DT high-quality score in early childhood incrementally accounted for 14% of the variance in preadolescent creativity evaluations beyond that accounted for by sex and conventionally measured intelligence and DT fluency (number of responses regardless of quality). (1? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)