Development of categorical representations for above and below spatial relations in 3- to 7-month-old infants.

A series of experiments examined the abilities of infants to form categorical representations for the spatial relations above and below. Exp 1 provided evidence that 3–4 mo olds can form categorical representations for above and below when a diamond shape was presented above or below a horizontal bar. Exps 2 and 3 showed that 3- and 4-mo olds did not form categorical representations for above and below when a number of discriminably different shapes (e.g., a diamond, a triangle, a dot) appeared above or below the bar. These more abstract categorical representations for above and below were formed by 6- to 7-mo olds (Exp 4). The findings suggest an experientially or maturationally based trend, from concrete to abstract, in the categorical representation of common spatial relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of repeated exposures to a single episode of the television program Blue's Clues on the viewing behaviors and comprehension of preschool children.

A single episode of the preschool educational television program Blue's Clues was shown once or repeated on 5 consecutive days for 3- to 5-year-old viewers. A comparison group watched a different preschool program one time. Viewer behavior was videotaped, and comprehension and learning of Blue's Clues content was tested. With repetition, looking at the television screen remained at a high level. Only 5-year-old boys' looking decreased. Verbal and nonverbal interactions with the program (such as answering questions and pointing at the screen) increased, especially during educational content. Comprehension improved with repetition. Episode repetition is an effective strategy for enhancing learning and program involvement for a preschool audience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Infant perception of /aba/ versus /apa/: Building a quantitative model of infant categorical discrimination.

Two experiments using a visual habituation paradigm examined 7.5 mo-old infants' categorical discrimination of the medial stop consonants /aba/ and /apa/. Infants received digitized natural speech tokens differing in the duration of consonantal closure and in the presence or absence of vocal-fold pulsing. The results provided clear evidence of infant categorical discrimination based solely on closure duration. Infants also shifted their boundary (toward shorter closure durations) if they received pulsing during habituation. A trading relation between closure duration and pulsing was also obtained. Three different quantitative models of infant speech perception were examined. A composite model incorporating categorical discrimination, the boundary shift, and the trading relation produced excellent predictions of infant performance. Application of this model to other aspects of infant speech perception was discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is level irrelevant in "irrelevant speech"? Effects of loudness, signal-to-noise ratio, and binaural unmasking

A series of experiments explored the role of level, signal-to-noise ratio, and the masking-level difference in the irrelevant speech effect (ISE). In Experiment 1 the detrimental effects of irrelevant sound on serial recall were found to be the same whether the material (speech or music) was presented at a high (75 dB[A]) or low (60 dB[A]) overall level. In Experiment 2, adding pink noise to the speech signal produced a linear improvement in performance with decreasing speech-to-noise ratios. In Experiment 3 the contribution of binaural unmasking to the ISE was found to be negligible. The results (a) confirm that the segmented, changing nature of the irrelevant sound is crucial in producing the ISE and (b) suggest that the adverse effects of disruptive auditory input may be alleviated by introducing additional uniform masking noise.     

Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research.

Despite the widespread use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research, researchers often make questionable decisions when conducting these analyses. This article reviews the major design and analytical decisions that must be made when conducting a factor analysis and notes that each of these decisions has important consequences for the obtained results. Recommendations that have been made in the methodological literature are discussed. Analyses of 3 existing empirical data sets are used to illustrate how questionable decisions in conducting factor analyses can yield problematic results. The article presents a survey of 2 prominent journals that suggests that researchers routinely conduct analyses using such questionable methods. The implications of these practices for psychological research are discussed, and the reasons for current practices are reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Species preferences of experimenters: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior..

Analyzed species preferences for 1958–1975 for the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and compared them with comparable data from the Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology (1969–1972). The percentage of experiments using pigeons increased, while there was a less marked decrease in the percentage using human Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Applications of psychology to television programming: Program execution.

Discusses the use of both educators and entertainers in the development and implementation of "Sesame Street" and "The Electric Company." The need of both of the groups to learn the other's language is pointed out, and the creation of a common lexicon (e.g., "cross plug," "visiting relatives effect,") and the psychological terms that can be used to describe the terms are reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Words from "Sesame Street": Learning vocabulary while viewing.

The present study was a longitudinal investigation of preschool children's viewing of "Sesame Street" and their vocabulary development. Five 1-week diaries of television viewing were collected for 2 years from 2 cohorts of children; 1 group was followed from ages 3 to 5 (n?=?160) and another from ages 5 to 7 (n?=?166). Child and family measures included children's vocabulary skills, gender, presence of siblings, parent education, parent encouragement of "Sesame Street" viewing, and parent positive attitudes about television. Cross-age multiple regressions, in conjunction with within-age regressions, suggested a positive effect of "Sesame Street" viewing from ages 3 to 5, with declining benefits from ages 5 to 7. Neither positive nor negative effects were evident for viewing other kinds of children's programs, such as cartoons. Results suggest that the content and presentation formats of "Sesame Street" are well suited to preschoolers' vocabulary development, independent of parent education, family size, child gender, and parental attitudes. The findings suggest the feasibility of tutorial uses of the video medium. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"MMPI and Rorschach: Three decades of research": A time series reanalysis.

Reanalyzed the results concerning the yearly analysis of references to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Rorschach test in Psychological Abstracts from 1950 to 1985 obtained by J. Polyson et al (see record 1987-02840-001), using the auto-regressive integrated moving average model. Findings of the reanalysis reveal a problem with the Polyson et al study, because the sample data did not meet the assumptions of the inferential procedures associated with the t-test and Pearson product-moment r. It is maintained that the number of publications in a given year for either measure did not influence the number of publications for the other measure in any subsequent year. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two types of delinquents and their institutional adjustment.

Tested a typology classifying 326 incarcerated delinquent boys as buoyant or beset, depending on their level of anxiety and depression at intake. Findings reveal that the two types of boys differed in some aspects of life history and personality, that the buoyant type adjusted better to the institution's group-oriented treatment program, and that buoyant and beset boys responded differentially to some components of the treatment. Implications are drawn regarding the usefulness of the typology for guiding differential treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial/ethnic minority research in the Journal of Counseling Psychology: A content analysis and methodological critique.

A content analysis was conducted of all racial/ethnic minority-focused research appearing in the Journal of Counseling Psychology over the 11-year period from 1976 to 1986. During this period 934 articles and brief reports were published, of which 53 (5.7%) had a racial/ethnic minority focus. The 53 articles were systematically reviewed for their sample characteristics and methodological considerations. The sample characteristics that were examined included ethnic groups studied, general populations sampled, and geographic breakdown of samples used. Methodological design characteristics that were investigated included general research designs incorporated, examination of within-group differences, outcome measures used, cultural sensitivity of instrumentation, acknowledgment of sample generalizability limits, and presence of conceptual or theoretical frameworks in developing research hypotheses. Data accumulated in the report were used as a base within which to examine major research methodology criticisms that have consistently appeared in recent ethnic minority literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Five methods for computing significant individual client change and improvement rates: Support for and individual growth curve approach." Correction to Speer and Greenbaum (1995).

Reports an error in "Five methods for computing significant individual client change and improvement rates: Support for an individual growth curve approach" by David C. Speer and Paul E. Greenbaum (Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1995[Dec], Vol 63[6], 1044-1048). In this article, the values reported for hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) in Table 2 (p. 1046) were incorrect. This erratum provides the correct values and further information on the conclusion of the study. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1996-00402-019.) Interest has been renewed in methods for determining individual client change. Currently, there are at least 4 pretreatment–posttreatment (pre-post) difference score methods. A 5th method, based on a random effects model and multiwave data, represents a growth curve approach and was hypothesized to be more sensitive to detecting significant (p?p?     

"Ocular fixation control as a function of age and exposure duration": Correction to Kosnik et al.

Reports an error in "Ocular fixation control as a function of age and exposure duration" by William Kosnik, Donald Kline, John Fikre and Robert Sekuler (Psychology and Aging, 1987[Sep], Vol 2[3], 302-305). In the aforementioned article, the following corrections should be made: 1. The title of Table 1 should be changed to Mean Bivariate Areas (min-arc2) and Mean Horizontal and Vertical Standard Deviations (min-arc) of Fixations of Older and Younger Groups. 2. The equation on page 304 should have used the natural log rather than the log base 10. The corrected equation is provided in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1988-01066-001.) In previous work we reported that fixation stability did not deteriorate in older adults over relatively long viewing durations. In the present study we reanalyzed the data to examine potential aging effects on fixational control for viewing durations typically used in psychological experimentation. Monocular eye movements were recorded in 12 older and 12 younger observers using a dual Purkinje image technique, while observers fixated a stationary target. The two-dimensional scatter of eye positions was measured during nine viewing durations ranging from 100 ms to 12.8 s. Fixational control of the two groups was comparable at all of the viewing durations. Both younger and older observers were able to maintain fixation within an area several times smaller than the size of the fovea. Implications for aging studies that use briefly presented visual stimuli are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

1993: Axline's eight principles of play therapy revisited.

Examined V. Axlines's book, Play Therapy (1947) which includes 8 basic principles on non-directive play therapy. Student responses to learning these principles in play therapy classes were also examined. Each student was assigned a play therapy client and was observed and assisted directly by the instructor, a licensed clinical psychologist. Clients were mildly trouble children (aged 5–10 yrs) and were selected from a referral base by the instructor as appropriate for the course. As the semester progressed and students gained direct experience, weekly small (3–4 student) group discussions were held to explore in-depth understanding of play therapy principles and how these principles are put into practice. It is concluded that Axline's book remains a classic text and a foremost resource in the field. Coupling it with experiential learning is an invaluable basis for teaching play therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapists' liking of their psychotherapy patients: Some issues related to severity of disorder and treatability.

57 American and Israeli psychotherapists completed the MMPI and questionnaires on professional background and personal experience in psychotherapy. Ss each nominated 1 "easy" and 1 "difficult" patient, and MMPIs and personal information were obtained from these patients. Several factors appeared to differentiate easy from difficult psychotherapy patients. The general characteristics of easy as compared to difficult patients indicated significantly less pathology on the MMPI, a more favorable psychotherapy prognosis, greater physical attractiveness if female, and less of a tendency to be labeled "personality disorder." The positive "liking" ratings of therapists toward their easy patients appeared to override all ideological differences in therapeutic orientation. The impact of the therapist's affective response is discussed in terms of "nonspecific" treatment factors that may affect the outcome of therapy. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some hidden "regularities" in a school mental health program and their relation to intended outcomes.

Investigated contact frequency and duration "regularities" as they relate to program objectives of educational and personal development. Children seen 1, 2, or 3 times/wk by nonprofessional child aides in a school mental health project did not differ significantly either on initial referral status or on outcome measures. Directionally, the 3 times/wk group had more serious initial problems; however, there were no consistent referral differences between the once and twice a week groups. Children seen least frequently improved most directionally. For 3 separate year groups, there were no referral or outcome differences between children who continued in the project and those who terminated; hence, no justification was found for differences in the length of intervention. Findings have implications both for the practices of this specific program and, more generally, for other types of helping interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor dogmatism, willingness to disclose, and clients' empathy ratings.

Assessed counselee perceptions of counselor interpersonal affectiveness, using the responses of 51 college-student counselees who evaluated 1 of 6 counselors on the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (BLRI). To test the hypothesis that the concepts of dogmatism, authoritarianism, and the closed person are synonymous, these concepts were studied in relationship to counselors' degree of disclosure by having the 6 counselors complete the BLRI and Rokeach Dogmatism Scale. Findings suggest that dogmatism is an unstable characteristic of counselors during counseling. Low-dogmatic counselors appeared to show higher levels of psychological insight during counseling than high-dogmatic counselors. It is suggested that the psychological state of the counselee may determine to a great extent the effectiveness of high-dogmatic counselors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Show versus no show: A comparison of referral calls to a suicide prevention and crisis service.

Conducted an exploratory content analysis of 20 pairs of taped telephone calls to a suicide prevention and crisis service. Variables that might differentiate between referrals resulting in "show" and those resulting in "no show," were studied. A show and a no show call for each of 20 telephone therapists were coded. It is concluded that a scale based on 6 indexes would differentiate between the 2 groups. Motivation of the caller for getting help and the concreteness of the therapist emerged as most important factors in the 6-item scale. The relationship between this research and a crisis intervention model is discussed. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reasons for clinical research: Characteristics of contributors and their contributions to the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

A representative sample of contributors (333) to the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology was asked to report on their motivations for conducting studies that had been published in that journal. Results indicate that the primary motivation of these clinical researchers was to build on prior theory and research through the gathering and analysis of new data to answer socially significant applied-clinical questions. More immediate pragmatic considerations (e.g., tenure, funding, degree or job requirements, and availability of Ss) were reported to be of secondary, but nevertheless significant, importance. Most respondents described the training model in which they had received their doctoral education or oriented toward an integrated scientist-practitioner approach rather than one that focused primarily on research, therapy, or assessment training. It was also found that these clinical researchers rarely conducted investigations in the context of community service or consultation interventions or in order to replicate past research. Results are discussed in light of current controversies in clinical psychology concerning the optimal model for training and the relevance of clinical research. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Relation between mastery behavior in infancy and competence in early childhood": Correction to Messer et al.

Reports an error in "Relation between mastery behavior in infancy and competence in early childhood" by David J. Messer, Mary E. McCarthy, Susan McQuiston, Robert H. MacTurk, Leon J. Yarrow and Peter M. Vietze (Developmental Psychology, 1986[May], Vol 22[3], 366-372). In the article, an incorrect copyright note has been given. The copyright note has been corrected and is included in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1986-24138-001.) 53 infants were observed at 6 and 12 mo of age during 2 24-min play sessions. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) were given at 6 and 12 mo and the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities (MSCA) at 30 mo of age. Results reveal that measures of competence in infancy (successful task completion during play and the BSID scores) were not strongly correlated with the 30-mo MSCA scores. In contrast, infant mastery behavior during play strongly predicted MSCA scores: The time spent investigating toys at 6 mo and persistence in solving tasks at 12 mo of age were behaviors significantly positively correlated with the MSCA scales. It is suggested that infant behaviors that predict later competence do not remain static but change with age and that infants' mastery behavior is a more effective predictor of later development than their competence with either toys or developmental tests. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)