Subitizing and counting skills in 3-year-olds.

Investigated 2 quantification skills, subitizing and counting, in 32 3-yr-olds. Three set sizes were used—2, 3, and 4. Ss showed a strong predilection to count on the subitizing task. Few subitizing responses occurred when Ss were asked to count. An informational analysis indicated no clear-cut difference between subitizing and counting except when the upper limit of subitizing was taken to be 4, in which case counting was superior. Findings fail to support a developmental model of quantification proposed by D. Klahr and J. G. Wallace (see PA, Vol 57:2924). (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When 3-year-olds pass the appearance–reality test.

68 3-yr-olds received a standard appearance–reality task along with either a trick task, in which the appearance question was placed in the context of a deceptive game, or a reduced information processing task, in which a dual object (e.g., a sponge-rock) was presented along with an object that matched the dual object's identity (a sponge) and one that matched the dual object's appearance (a rock). Children were more likely to pass either the trick or reduced information processing task and fail the standard than the reverse. Thus, 3-yr-olds can grasp the distinction between appearance and reality (a) when their goal is to trick someone, which may prime them to think about the other's mental state, and (b) when they do not need to hold conflicting object identities in mind at the same time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recognition of facial expressions of emotions by 3-year-olds.

Very few large-scale studies have focused on emotional facial expression recognition (FER) in 3-year-olds, an age of rapid social and language development. We studied FER in 808 healthy 3-year-olds using verbal and nonverbal computerized tasks for four basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, and fear). Three-year-olds showed differential performance on the verbal and nonverbal FER tasks, especially with respect to fear. That is to say, fear was one of the most accurately recognized facial expressions as matched nonverbally and the least accurately recognized facial expression as labeled verbally. Sex did not influence emotion-matching nor emotion-labeling performance after adjusting for basic matching or labeling ability. Three-year-olds made systematic errors in emotion-labeling. Namely, happy expressions were often confused with fearful expressions, whereas negative expressions were often confused with other negative expressions. Together, these findings suggest that 3-year-olds' FER skills strongly depend on task specifications. Importantly, fear was the most sensitive facial expression in this regard. Finally, in line with previous studies, we found that recognized emotion categories are initially broad, including emotions of the same valence, as reflected in the nonrandom errors of 3-year-olds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of Deception.

Comments on "Deception in psychological research" by J. Seeman (see record 1970-07542-001). Certainly, a number of legitimate arguments exist for the reduction and/or elimination of deception in psychological experimentation. However, employed by an ethical scientist, the use of deceit in psychological experimentation can meaningfully contribute to the accumulation of "wisdom" Seeman cherishes so. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

U-shaped development in math: 7-year-olds outperform 9-year-olds on equivalence problems.

What is the nature of the association between age (7-11 years) and performance on mathematical equivalence problems (e.g., 7 + 4 + 5 + 7 + _)? Many prevailing theories suggest that there should be a positive association. However, change-resistance accounts (e.g., N. M. McNeil & M. W. Alibali, 2005b) predict a U-shaped association. The purpose of the present research was to test these differing predictions. Results from two studies supported a change-resistance account. In the first study (N = 87), performance on equivalence problems declined between the ages of 7 and 9 and improved between the ages of 9 and 11. The decrements in performance between the ages of 7 and 9 were then replicated in a second study (N = 35). Results suggest that the association between age and performance on equivalence problems is U-shaped. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empathy and cooperation in 4-year-olds.

4-yr-olds viewed slides of children designed to elicit emotions of fear, sadness, anger, and happiness in the S. Cooperative behavior was then assessed by having Ss play a game in dyads and by observing their behavior in nursery school. No differences in total empathy or in individual emotions were obtained between cooperative and noncooperative children. Girls obtained higher empathy scores than boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reasoning and secondary reinforcement in 6–7-year-olds and 10–11-year-olds.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate the 1st author's cognitive theory of secondary reinforcement effects, which predicts that Ss of a preoperational age (i.e., younger than 7 yrs) should not necessarily learn responses followed by a stimulus object previously instrumental in obtaining a reward, while Ss of a postoperational age should do so. Using 24 1st and 24 5th graders in 2 learning tasks, the prediction was confirmed. Furthermore, verbal responses indicated that the logical operations that presumably influenced the behavior of the older children actually did occur. In Exp II, using 28 2nd and 15 6th graders, the training task was simplified in order to try to facilitate logical reasoning, but the behavior of the younger Ss was not affected. It is concluded that secondary reinforcement of a stimulus–response associative type has yet to be demonstrated, and that secondary reinforcement of a cognitive type is heavily dependent on reasoning ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deception can be acceptable.

Comments on the article by A. Ortmann and R. Hertwig (see record 1997-04731-011) in which they vehemently argue against any deception of participants in psychological research. Their sophisticated arguments against deception in research are neither precise nor imperative, addressing only questionable negative long-term effects of deception in research. It is argued that (1) acceptability of an experimental treatment and acceptability of deception must be kept separate, (2) deception is necessary in research on certain topics, and (3) participants understand and even accept deception when they are carefully debriefed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics of 3- to 4-year-olds assessed at home and their interactions in preschool.

Assessed the characteristics of 24 male and 21 female 42-mo-olds in the UK using a semistructured maternal interview concerning behavior at home. Behavior in preschool was recorded by direct observation. The procedures were repeated for 21 of the males and 16 of the females 8 mo later. Results show that many of the characteristics assessed at home were related in a predictable way to behavior in preschool. For example, shy Ss interacted less with peers at 42 mo of age. At 50 mo of age they initiated fewer interactions with adults, but shy males played interactively with peers. Assertive Ss were involved in more interactions and controlled others at 42 mo of age. These Ss showed more interactive play, hostile interactions, and crying at age 50 mo. The characteristics Active, Moody, and Assertive produced at least twice as many significant correlations at 50 mo as at 42 mo of age. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lexical exposure and word-form encoding in 1.5-year-olds.

In this study, 1.5-year-olds were taught a novel word. Some children were familiarized with the word's phonological form before learning the word's meaning. Fidelity of phonological encoding was tested in a picture-fixation task using correctly pronounced and mispronounced stimuli. Only children with additional exposure in familiarization showed reduced recognition performance given slight mispronunciations relative to correct pronunciations; children with fewer exposures did not. Mathematical modeling of vocabulary exposure indicated that children may hear thousands of words frequently enough for accurate encoding. The results provide evidence compatible with partial failure of phonological encoding at 19 months of age, demonstrate that this limitation in learning does not always hinder word recognition, and show the value of infants' word-form encoding in early lexical development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deception by young children following noncompliance.

A paradigm devised by M. Lewis, C. Stanger, and M. W. Sullivan (1989) was adapted to study deception and false-belief understanding. In Study 1, 3- and 5-year-olds were asked not to touch a toy in the experimenter's absence. Just over half of the children touched the toy, and of those children, the majority denied having done so. Of control children who were given permission to touch the toy, all touched it and admitted having done so. In Study 2, 3- and 5-year-olds were asked not to look in a box to identify its contents. Almost all children looked, most denied having looked, and a minority consistently feigned ignorance of the contents. False-belief understanding was linked to denial of looking but not to feigning ignorance. Of control children who were given permission to look, all acknowledged looking, and they almost always revealed their knowledge of the contents. The studies confirm that preschoolers deceive in the context of a minor misdemeanor but are less effective at feigning ignorance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deception?

Criticizes the validity of the D. Smith and F. Dumont study (see record 1995-34868-001) of unwarranted interpretations of the Draw A Person test, describing the study as a built-in setup that tricks its participants rather than being a sensible test of the authors' hypothesis. The author offers a more refined and ethical procedure aimed at achieving the study's purpose. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relations between temperament and empathy in 2-year-olds.

The role of infant and toddler temperament in the prediction of empathy in 2-year-old children was examined. Assessments of temperament included reactivity and affect observed at 4 months of age, as well as inhibition at Age 2. Empathy was measured in 2-year-old children's responses to simulations of distress performed by their mothers and by an unfamiliar person. Children showed relatively more concern for the mother's distress, but they were also responsive to unfamiliar victims. Infants who were unreactive and showed little affect also showed less empathy toward the unfamiliar adult almost 2 years later. Inhibition toward an unfamiliar adult (but not toward the mother) at 2 years of age was negatively related to empathy. Inhibited temperament may thus have a major impact on young children's empathy in unfamiliar contexts. Findings also highlight the need to consider early underarousal as another dimension of temperament that may dampen expressions of empathic concern. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Appearing Truthful Generalizes Across Different Deception Situations.

The authors investigated whether the ability to appear truthful is specific to deception situations. Male participants were interrogated after they took part in 2 high-stake deception situations, one involving a mock crime and another involving a false opinion. The videotaped interrogations from each situation were shown to independent groups of undergraduate observers. The proportion of observers who judged each participant as truthful in one situation correlated highly with the proportion of observers who judged the same participant as truthful in the other situation. This was not correlated with physiognomy judgments. Follow-up studies revealed that although the participants showed consistency in their facial, body, and paralinguistic behaviors across situations, observers' judgments seemed to be driven only by the consistency of the dynamic facial behaviors. These results are discussed in terms of the evolutionary importance of the face in communication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deception in psychological research: A reply to Seeman.

Suggests safeguards in response to J. Seeman's (see record 1970-07542-001) condemnation of the use of deception in psychological research with human Ss. Such research can be both ethical and therapeutic if the proposed study is reviewed by an interdisciplinary committee, Ss are free to terminate their participation at any time, informed consent is obtained, and debriefing is used as a therapeutic interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers and fathers teaching 3-year-olds: Authoritative parenting and adult scaffolding of young children's learning.

Investigated variations in parental tutoring of children on the basis of Vygotsky's (1978) theorizing and concept of parental scaffolding of children's learning. Twenty-four couples and their 3-year-old children participated. Mothers and fathers worked separately with the child on three difficult tasks: a block construction task, a matrix classification task, and a story retelling task. Parental interventions were classified by level of support and were used to define the region of sensitivity to instruction, following the work of Wood (1980). Independent observers rated each parent separately on authoritative/uninvolved and authoritarian/permissive styles, following Baumrind's (1967, 1973) typology. Both mothers and fathers adjusted their support of the child as predicted. Later portions of the tutoring interactions demonstrated more fine tuning of interventions by parents than earlier portions. However, authoritative mothers and fathers were generally more likely than nonauthoritative parents to focus interventions in the region of sensitivity across tasks and to shift their interventions contingent on child success or failure. These patterns were also associated with more dyadic success on task as predicted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between competitiveness and empathy in 6- and 7-year-olds.

Tested the proposition that competitiveness and a competitive instructional set would suppress the expression of empathy in 6- and 7-yr-old children. The Feshbach and Roe test of empathy was administered to 84 Ss while they were preparing either to compete or to cooperate with another child on a game. Boys rated by teachers as highly competitive were less empathic than less competitive boys; no difference was found for girls. There was no evidence that the Ss' empathy was influenced by the manipulation of instructional set. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deception and detection in psychiatric diagnosis

Deception is ubiquitous in all communication and relationships. It can be conscious, unconscious, or both. It is present in all psychiatric diagnoses as alterations of history, symptom fabrication, symptom enhancement or minimization, and noncompliance with treatment recommendations. We are born better deceivers than we are detectors and untrained intuition may result in very unreliable discrimination. In order to improve our ability to distinguish fact from fiction, the diagnostician must attend to clues in the patient's history and physical and mental status examinations. Laboratory examination, psychological testing, and polygraphy also can be useful adjuncts in detection; however, the first step is always suspicion.