Collaborative problem solving and children's planning skills.

Two studies were conducted in which 5- and 9-year-old children either collaborated with another person (peer or adult) or worked individually in planning efficient routes through a model grocery store. The studies examined the effects of planning with a partner as well as the relation of collaborative planning to subsequent solo planning. Study 1 demonstrated that older children are more skilled at planning in advance of action than younger children, and that children who planned in advance produced more efficient routes. Younger children who shared task responsibility developed more efficient routes, but this relationship did not appear for the older children. Results of Study 2, focusing on 5-year-olds, suggested that, although having a partner did not influence later individual planning, sharing responsibility for planning with a peer or an adult related to advance planning and planning effectiveness in later individual planning efforts. The results of the present studies suggest that cognitive gains resulting from joint problem solving between children and adults or peers may be more likely with shared task responsibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schema induction in children's analogical problem solving.

Three experiments were conducted to explore the ability of school-age children to transfer solutions to analogous problems. This research addressed the issue of how the variability of procedural features in source examples facilitates the induction of a general problem schema and, thus, promotes subsequent transfer. Children were asked to solve a series of problems analogous to A. S. Luchins's (1942) classic waterjar problems. All the problems shared a common isomorphic structure and a general solution but required either similar or different specific procedures. Children who experienced problems with variant procedural features were more likely than those who experienced problems with invariant procedural features to construct a general problem schema and to solve novel problems requiring unfamiliar procedures. This research sheds light on the cognitive mechanisms involved in strategy generalization and analogical problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of model persistence and success on children's problem solving.

Studied the effects of a social model's performance on children's persistence in problem solving using a wire-puzzle task. 80 1st and 2nd graders were assigned to 1 of 4 live modeling groups or to a no-model control group. Two durations of model effort (high or low persistence) relative to the control group performance were factorially compared with model success or no success in reaching a solution. Both duration of effort and success of the model significantly affected persistence. Together these variables significantly improved or depressed the Ss' persistence compared with that of the control group. Social comparisons by the Ss of the length of their performances and those of the models appeared to covary with imitative behavioral outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of A. Bandura's social learning theory. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social problem solving in suicidal adolescents.

Whether adolescent suicide attempters would have deficits in interpersonal problem solving and the relation between social problem solving, suicide intent, and medical lethality were evaluated. Compared with psychiatric and normal controls, adolescents who attempted suicide exhibited poorer social problem-solving abilities, particularly in terms of problem orientation. Specifically, suicide attempters brought more maladaptive cognitive-emotional-behavioral response sets to problematic situations than did psychiatric and normal controls. Both suicide attempters and psychiatric controls had similar deficits in problem-solving skills (e.g., generation of alternatives, decision making, and solution implementation) compared with nonhospitalized peers. Social problem solving was not found to be correlated with suicide lethality or intent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social maladjustment and problem solving in school-aged children.

Examined the relationship between social adjustment and the cognitive skills of solving interpersonal problems. 68 popular, aggressive, or isolated boys at 2 grade levels (2nd–3rd and 4th–5th) were presented with 6 hypothetical problem situations and asked to generate alternative solutions to the problems. Ss were subsequently asked to evaluate the effectiveness of solutions presented to them by the experimenter. It was found that the popular Ss generated more solutions than either the aggressive or isolated groups, which did not differ. The initial solutions of all groups were rated as "effective," in most cases, by independent coders. Subsequent solutions, however, varied as a function of S status. Popular Ss continued to generate effective solutions, whereas deviant Ss generated aggressive and ineffective solutions. No differences among S groups were found in the evaluations of the effectiveness of given solutions. Data support the notion that deviant boys are deficient in the cognitive problem-solving skills of generating alternative solutions but are not deficient in the evaluation of presented solutions. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of model persistence and statements of confidence on children's self-efficacy and problem solving.

The influence of an adult model's degree of persistence and statements of confidence were studied with 100 1st- and 2nd-grade Black and Hispanic children from a lower-class, urban school. A male model unsuccessfully attempted to separate the 2 rings of a wire puzzle, and the child was subsequently presented a different insolvable ring puzzle to solve. A day later, the child was tested again with an insolvable embedded word puzzle. In addition to their actual persistence on the 2 tasks, the children's self-efficacy estimates were assessed at various points during the experiment. The model's long duration of performance and his statements of confidence significantly increased the children's degree of persistence on both the wire puzzle and the embedded word transfer task. These modeling treatments significantly affected the children's self-efficacy estimates as well. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to A. Bandura's (1977) theory of self-efficacy. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automatic versus reflective social problem solving in relation to children's sociometric status.

Children's automatic and reflective social problem-solving skills were compared by requiring them to generate solutions to hypothetical social problems immediately after hearing them or after being required to wait 20 sec before answering. When responding immediately, a condition designed to evoke Ss' automatic response tendencies, both aggressive and nonaggressive, rejected boys generated fewer verbal assertion responses and more conflict-escalating responses than did nonrejected boys. When required to delay before responding, a condition that encouraged reflective reasoning, only the responses of aggressive rejected boys differed from those of nonrejected boys. Similar status-related differences in the solutions proposed by female Ss were not found. The implications of these findings for aggressive and rejected children's social problem-solving deficiencies are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of conceptual understanding in children's addition problem solving

The study examined the relationship between children's conceptual understanding and addition problem-solving procedures. Forty-eight 6- to 8-year-olds solved addition problems and, in a 2nd task, were prompted to judge whether a puppet could use the arithmetic properties of one problem to solve the next problem. Relational properties between consecutive problems were manipulated to reflect aspects of additive composition, commutativity, and associativity principles. Conceptual understanding was assessed by the ability to spontaneously use such relational properties in problem solving (Task 1) and to recognize and explain them when prompted (Task 2). Results revealed that conceptual understanding was related to using order-indifferent, decomposition, and retrieval strategies and speed and accuracy in solving unrelated problems. The importance of conceptual understanding for addition development is discussed.     

Social isolation and social problem solving: A longitudinal study.

Investigated the social problem-solving (SPS) abilities of 72 children who were observed to interact infrequently with their peers. In Study 1, the stability of isolate and social behavior was examined. Ss were administered an SPS test in kindergarten and again in Grade 1, and relations between the observed frequency of isolate and social play and SPS were computed. Isolate and social behaviors were found to be moderately stable from kindergarten to Grade 1. Moreover, both quantitative and qualitative indexes of SPS competence correlated (concurrently and predictively) in a negative direction with the observed frequency of isolate play and in a positive direction with social play. In Study 2, the relations between frequency of isolate and social play and naturalistic SPS skills were examined. The data revealed that nonassertive, compliant SPS strategies observed in kindergarten correlated concurrently, but moderately, with isolate play in kindergarten and predictively with isolate play in Grade 1. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal scaffolding of children's problem solving and children's adjustment in kindergarten: Hmong families in the United States.

The study examined relations between maternal scaffolding of children's problem solving and children's adjustment in kindergarten in Hmong families living in the United States. Mothers and their children (63 dyads) were visited the summer before kindergarten. Mothers' years in the United States, age, education, reasoning skills, and parenting beliefs were assessed. Maternal scaffolding (cognitive support, directiveness of instruction, praise, and criticism) was coded while mothers helped their children with school-like tasks. Children's reasoning skills, conscientiousness, autonomous behavior, and task persistence in kindergarten were reported by teachers at the end of kindergarten (54 children). Maternal cognitive support of children's problem solving predicted children's reasoning skills in kindergarten even after controlling for maternal education and reasoning skills. Maternal directive instruction positively predicted children's conscientious behavior and negatively predicted children's autonomous behaviors after controlling for maternal education and parenting beliefs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' scaffolding of children's problem solving: Establishing a foundation of academic self-regulatory competence.

The study examined relations between dimensions of mothers' scaffolding and children's academic self-regulatory behaviors in school. Mothers and their preschool children (68 dyads) were visited in their homes the summer before the child entered kindergarten. Mothers' metacognitive content and manner of instruction, emotional support, and transfer of responsibility were coded as mothers provided assistance to their children during 4 problem-solving tasks. Children's self-regulatory behaviors were assessed the following school year. Metacognitive content and manner of instruction were predictors of child behaviors related to cognitive awareness and management: metacognitive talk, monitoring, and help seeking. Emotional support and transfer of responsibility were related to children's task persistence and behavior control in school. Mothers' scaffolding appears to lay the foundation for children's subsequent academic self-regulatory competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social values and social conflict in creative problem solving and categorization.

Participants were led to expect either cooperation or conflict, and then performed K. Duncker's (1945) functional-fixedness task (Experiment 1) or E. Rosch's (1975) categorization task (Experiment 2). Those who expected cooperation, compared with those who expected conflict, were more likely to solve Duncker's task and used categories more inclusively, that is, rated low-prototypic exemplars of a category as better members of the category. In Experiment 3, the direct experience of cooperation and conflict had the same effect on categorization. In Experiment 4, participants were classified as having cooperative, competitive, or individualistic social values, and were led to expect either cooperation, conflict, or neither in a control. In the control, cooperators used categories more inclusively than competitors or individualists. Competitors used categories least inclusively in the conflict condition; in the cooperation condition, they used categories most inclusively. These results are interpreted in terms of the possible mediating role of cognitive organization in individual and intergroup conflict resolution. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recent research on human problem solving.

Though the research on human problem solving behavior from 1946 to 1957 has been characterized by a variety of problem tasks, diverse taxonomy of behavioral processes, non-dimensionalized variables, and a relative lack of integration of data and theory, several tentative conclusions are apparent. Among these it is suggested that problem solving performance varies as a function of simple sets and a few kinds of complex sets, of level of problem difficulty, of aids toward solution, and of such S variables as sex, age, and reasoning ability. 114-item bibliog. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conformity and problem solving.

Tests of problem solving, conformity, and intelligence were given to 77 women and 64 men introductory psychology students to investigate the possibility that conformity, a nonintellectual variable, contributes to the variability in achievement in problem solving. The results show a negative correlation between tendency to conform and achievement in problem solving when the influence of intelligence is statistically removed. 17 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support, problem solving, and the longitudinal course of newlywed marriage.

Married couples (N = 172) were observed as newlyweds and observed again 1 year later while engaging in 2 problem-solving and 2 personal support discussions. Microanalytic coding of these conversations was used to examine associations between problem-solving and social support behaviors for 1 year and their relative contributions to 10-year trajectories of self-reported relationship satisfaction and dissolution. Results demonstrated that initially lower levels of positive support behaviors and higher levels of negative support behaviors predicted 1-year increases in negative emotion displayed during problem-solving conversations. Emotions coded from the initial problem-solving conversations did not predict 1-year changes in social support behaviors. Controlling for emotions displayed during problem-solving interactions eliminated or reduced associations between initial social support behaviors and (a) later levels of satisfaction and (b) relationship dissolution. These findings corroborate models that prioritize empathy, validation, and caring as key elements in the development of intimacy (e.g., Reis & Shaver, 1988) and suggest that deficits in these domains foreshadow deterioration in problem solving and conflict management. Implications for integrating support and problem solving in models of relationship change are outlined, as are implications for incorporating social support in education programs for developing relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social influences on drinking during pregnancy.

The influence of social networks on the drinking practices of pregnant women was examined. Pregnant women (n?=?153) were classified according lo whether they were heavy or light drinkers just before pregnancy and whether they reduced their alcohol risk status after pregnancy recognition. Failure to reduce alcohol risk status following pregnancy recognition among initially heavy drinkers was associated with reporting drinking as a social activity and difficulty in resisting social pressure to drink. There was also evidence that failure to reduce drinking was associated with greater approval for drinking during pregnancy and more frequent serving of alcohol among the social network. Findings suggest that interventions designed to reduce drinking among pregnant women help them to find alternative social activities and to develop strategies for resisting pressure to drink (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organization and creative problem solving.

"Groups from four populations differing in their amount of experience and identification with industrial vocation, were compared in their performances on the Change of Work Procedure problem." Arranged from most to least identified, there were 179 groups. "The results are interpreted as providing support for the proposition that the formal authority relations in organizations inhibit creative problem solving. They also suggest that business may be attracting people who can work comfortably, but not creatively, in such formal authority systems." (12 ref.) From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4LI77M. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and social problem solving.

20 depressed patients with major depressive disorder, 20 nondepressed matched control Ss, and 17 patients with anxiety disorders were compared in different measures of social problem solving. Problem solving was assessed with the Means-Ends Problem-Solving Test (Study 1), the solution of personal problems, and a problem-solving questionnaire (Study 2). Results showed that, as predicted, depressed Ss suffered from a deficit in problem solving in all 3 measures. The majority of these deficits were also displayed by the clinical control group rather than being specific to a diagnosis of depression. However, depressed Ss produced less effective solutions than did normal and clinical control Ss. The results suggest that depressed and anxious patients may have difficulties at different stages of the problem-solving process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Guidance during mathematical problem solving.

Researchers have suggested that often, having students study worked examples may be superior to active problem solving. The guidance provided by such examples reduces cognitive load compared with that imposed by the means–ends strategy used by most novice problem-solvers. This may facilitate schema acquisition. The guidance provided by worked examples or other sources of information, such as subgoals, must not themselves require significant cognitive resources for effective processing. In many areas of mathematics, conventional methods of presentation may result in a splitting of attention between multiple sources of information that must be mentally integrated. The cognitive load imposed may eliminate any benefit of a worked example or other form of guidance. A series of 5 geometry experiments provided evidence for this hypothesis. When guidance in the form of subgoals or worked examples was provided using a conventional format requiring attention to 2 sources of information, Ss' performance was no better and possibly worse than when solving conventional problems. Presenting information using a format that did not split attention resulted in a superiority of worked examples over conventional problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Models of group problem solving.

The nature of the group problem solving process was investigated with college Ss working on Maier's horse trading problem (1952). 3 theoretical models were posited to be utilized to interpret the results: an independent model (group response will not differ from those of Ss working alone), a rational model (when one group member solves the problem, the group will adopt the answer), and a consensus model (assuming pressure towards conformity). The results appeared to validate the consensus model. Factors influencing the quality of group responses were evaluated and presented. Suggestions are made regarding the design for future research. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4GE53T. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)