受焊缝缺陷影响的锥形薄壳屈曲性能研究

壳体表面的初始压力通常是在各种平板的轧制或焊接过程中产生的。提出与现行规范相关的基本设计规则非常重要。本文重点介绍壳体制作过程中由平板边缘的持续焊接造成的纵向缺陷。将14个试验试件分成2组,分别称之为SCC和DCC,并施加均匀静水压力。随着厚度由1t,2t增大到3t(t为薄壳厚度),试件出现1条或2条直线缺陷。该文得到的研究结果与国际上的规范及关于初始和整体屈曲及破坏的理论基本吻合。     

Finite element techniques for the analysis of cooling tower shells with geometric imperfections

Two finite element methods for analysing geometrically imperfect cooling tower shells are presented. In the first the geometry of the imperfection is modelled by the elements; in the second the imperfection is represented by an equivalent load on the shell. Axisymmetric and general shell elements have been considered.Results are given which show that the first approximation to the equivalent load is sufficiently accurate and that it is possible to represent local imperfections by axisymmetric imperfections which require less computation. It is also shown that axisymmetric elements should be used wherever possible, because of their greater efficiency, following the geometry of an axisymmetric imperfection but representing local imperfections by equivalent loads.     

The measurement of imperfections in cylindrical thin-walled members

The structural behaviour of thin-walled circular cylindrical members has been shown to be imperfection sensitive. However, only little information of the exact nature of imperfections in such members is available. In this paper a method of measuring imperfections in circular cylindrical members is described, the method is simple to implement in a laboratory environment while providing accurate measurements. Numerical methods to process the measurements into three-dimensional imperfection maps are also presented along with an algorithm to distinguish between significant imperfection patterns and measurement ‘noise’. Results from a recent research project where this method has been used illustrate the derivations in this paper.     

Robust design of composite cylindrical shells under axial compression — Simulation and validation

Thin-walled shell structures like circular cylindrical shells are prone to buckling. Imperfections, which are defined as deviations from perfect shape and perfect loading distributions, can reduce the buckling load drastically compared to that of the perfect shell. Design criteria monographs like NASA-SP 8007 recommend that the buckling load of the perfect shell shall be reduced by using a knock-down factor. The existing knock-down factors are very conservative and do not account for the structural behaviour of composite shells. To determine an improved knock-down factor, several authors consider realistic shapes of shells in numerical simulations using probabilistic methods. Each manufacturing process causes a specific imperfection pattern; hence for this probabilistic approach a large number of test data is needed, which is often not available. Motivated by this lack of data, a new deterministic approach is presented for determining the lower bound of the buckling load of thin-walled cylindrical composite shells, which is derived from phenomenological test data. For the present test series, a single pre-buckle is induced by a radial perturbation load, before the axial displacement controlled loading starts. The deformations are measured using the prototype of a high-speed optical measurement system with a frequency up to 3680 Hz. The observed structural behaviour leads to a new reasonable lower bound of the buckling load. Based on test results, the numerical model is validated and the shell design is optimized by virtual testing. The results of test and numerical analysis indicate that this new approach has the potential to provide an improved and less conservative shell design in order to reduce weight and cost of thin-walled shell structures made from composite material.     

Non-linear vibration of initially stressed plates with initial imperfections

Non-linear partial differential equations of vibration for isotropic plates having initial imperfection are derived. The derivation based on the classical plate theory aims to describe non-linear vibration of imperfect plates in a general state of arbitrary initial stresses. Galerkin method is used to reduce the non-linear partial differential equations to ordinary non-linear differential equations. Runge-Kutta method is used to obtain the non-linear and linear frequencies of vibration. A numerical example is presented to discuss the performances of perfect and imperfect plates. The initial stress is taken to be a combination of pure bending stress plus an extension stress in the plane of the plate. It is found that the existence of initial vibration amplitude, initial stress and geometric imperfect may result in a drastic change on the non-linear vibration behavior. The effects of various parameters on the non-linear free vibrations are discussed.     

The shape of circumferential weld-induced imperfections in thin-walled steel silos and tanks

The strength of thin-walled cylindrical shell structures is highly dependent on the nature and magnitude of imperfections. Most importantly, circumferential imperfections have been reported to have an especially detrimental effect on the buckling resistance of these shells under axial load. Due to the manufacturing techniques commonly used during the erection of steel silos and tanks, specific types of imperfections are introduced into these structures, among them circumferential weld-induced imperfections between strakes of steel plates. The shape of such a localised circumferential imperfection has been shown to have a great influence on the degree of strength loss of thin-walled cylindrical shell structures. The results of a survey of imperfections in an existing silo at a location in Port Kembla, Australia in combination with linear elastic shell bending theory was used to develop and calibrate a shape function which accurately describes the geometric features of circumferential weld imperfections. The proposed shape function is the first function to combine shell theory with actual field imperfection measurements. It is a continuous function and incorporates all the necessary features to represent the geometry of a circumferential weld-induced imperfection. It was found that after filtering out the effects of overall imperfections three parameters governed the shape of the surveyed imperfections: the depth, the wavelength and the roundness.     

Analysis of hyperbolic cooling towers with local imperfections

Two methods to analyse hyperbolic cooling towers with local imperfections are presented. One method relies on the finite element technique. For this a specialized finite-element program, which can model any arbitrary imperfections while retaining the advantage offered by the basically axisymmetric nature of the shell, was developed. The other method is an approximate procedure, which may be implemented with a purely axisymmetric analysis capability. The two methods are compared through numerical studies. A cooling tower shell with a bulge-type imperfection is examined under dead load and wind load conditions. It is concluded that the finite-element model presented is effective for the analysis of such shells, while the equivalent-load method may be adequate for some cases. Also, it is shown that both meridional and circumferential stress resultants may be radically influenced by a small bulge imperfection.     

Investigation of the buckling behavior of conical shells under weld-induced imperfections

The initial depression of shell skins is usually created through various panel processes such as rolling or welding. It is important to create some basic design regulations associated with the existing codes. A longitudinal imperfection caused by the continuous welding of a panel's edge to form a cone is the most important case in this context. The present paper discusses 14 laboratory specimens in 2 groups, labeled Shallow Conical Caps (SCC) and Deep Conical Caps (DCC), loaded under uniform hydrostatic pressure. The samples were modified to include either 1 or 2 line imperfections with amplitudes of 1t, 2t and 3t in depth (t the thickness of conical shell). The results presented here are in general agreement with international codes as well as theories concerning initial and overall buckling and collapse.     

Influence of loading imperfections on the stability of an axially compressed cylindrical shell

An important phenomenon is presented which has not been given sufficient attention in the stability of shell structures: the buckling of a circular cylinder subjected to a set of equally distributed discrete axial concentrated loads is studied. It is shown that the critical load of a circular cylinder under axial compression is very sensitive to imperfection of the applied loads as well as to initial geometric imperfections and the boundary conditions.     

Stresses in thin spherical shells with imperfections. Part I: Influence of axisymmetric imperfections

A finite element model of axisymmetric geometry is used to obtain stress and moment fields in the region of an imperfection in thin, spherical shells. In Part I the studies are restricted to axisymmetric imperfections with a cosine variation along the meridian. Parametric studies are carried out to identify the main parameters controlling the response for internal pressure and gravity load. The results show that the behaviour of the shell is similar to the imperfect cylindrical shell with the same radius as in the spherical shell.     

The effect of geometric imperfections on the vibrations of anisotropic cylindrical shells

Analytical–numerical models to analyse the flexural vibration behaviour of anisotropic cylindrical shells are presented. The two models (denoted as Level-1 and Level-2 Analysis) have different levels of complexity and can be used to study the influence of important parameters, such as geometric imperfections, static loading, and boundary conditions. A specific anisotropic shell is used in the calculations in this paper. The influence of the imperfection shape and amplitude on the natural frequency is investigated for this shell via both the Level-1 and the Level-2 Analysis. Imperfections with the shape of the “lowest vibration mode” give a decrease of the natural frequency with increasing imperfection amplitude. The results of the Level-2 Analysis for the effect of imperfections on the natural frequency are in reasonable agreement with Finite Element calculations.     

Stresses in thin spherical shells with imperfections. Part II: Influence of local imperfections

The changes in stress resultants in thin spherical shells, associated with a local imperfection introducing curvature errors in all directions, are investigated. An axisymmetric finite element model of the shell and imperfection is employed to carry out the linear elastic analysis. Parametric studies have been performed, to identify the main parameters controlling the response, for the case of internal pressure. The results are compared with those obtained in Part I for axisymmetric imperfections, and bounds for maximum elastic stress resultants are established to cover the possibility of both local and axisymmetric imperfections.     

Imperfektionsempfindlichkeit und Grenzlasten von Schalentragwerken

Imperfection sensitivity and limit loads of shell structures. The imperfection sensitivity and the limit loads of shell structures are widely discussed phenomena. The perturbation energy concept enables to assess the imperfection sensitivity of shell structures by one energy value. The comparison of the numerically computed load levels with the limit loads according to design rules allows to identify one value of the perturbation energy, which enables to describe realistically the limit loads of different buckling cases and to evaluate different design rules.     

Ultimate strength of submarine pressure hulls with failure governed by inelastic buckling

The analysis of submarine pressure hull assumes great importance among structural engineers due to the complexity involved in the collapse mechanism of stiffened shell structures. In most of the cases, the failure of stiffened shell structures occurs due to elastic buckling. But for some combinations of shell-stiffener geometry and material characteristics, the structure can fail by inelastic buckling, for which the methods of analysis are meagre. In this paper, the analysis of submarine pressure hull structure in which the failure gets governed by inelastic buckling is demonstrated. Three different approaches have been employed to investigate the ultimate strength of the ring stiffened submarine pressure hull structure with inelastic buckling modes of failure. The methods used are ‘Johnson–Ostenfeld inelastic correction’, ‘imperfection method’ and ‘finite element approach’. A typical submarine shell structure has been analysed for the inelastic buckling failure using these three approaches and the results are discussed.     

A Koiter's perturbation strategy for the imperfection sensitivity analysis of thin-walled structures with residual stresses

This paper suggests a strategy for the imperfection sensitivity analysis of elastic thin-walled structures with notable residual stresses. The analysis is carried out by means of a Koiter's perturbation approach. The concept of imperfection, traditionally associated with geometric and load factors, is extended in this paper to the residual stresses. The strategy is implemented in a FEM code. A comparison of the obtained results allows a discussion on the accuracy and the influence of the different coefficients connected to the asymptotic analysis of the residual stresses.     

Imperfection sensitivity analysis of laminated folded plates

A novel methodology for imperfection sensitivity analysis is presented. Koiter׳s perturbation method is used to calculate the imperfection paths emanating from mode interaction bifurcations, which occur on the post-buckling paths of the single modes. The Monte Carlo method is used to test a large number of modes and all possible interactions among them. The computational cost is low because of the efficiency of Koiter׳s method. The demands of Koiter׳s method for accurate evaluations of higher order derivatives of the potential energy are met by a mixed, corotational element.     

Elastic local post-buckling of elliptical tubes

The elastic local post-buckling behaviour of elliptical tubes under compression is analysed in this paper. A brief outline of the local, distortional and global buckling behaviour of EHS tubes is firstly provided, where it is shown that local buckling modes govern the stability of short to intermediate length tubes while distortional modes control the stability of intermediate length to moderately long tubes and global buckling dominates the behaviour of longer tubes. Following this, an in-depth numerical study employing shell finite element modelling, of the elastic local post-buckling behaviour of compressed elliptical hollow section (EHS) tubes is presented. It is concluded that EHS tubes with a low to moderate aspect ratio can support loads up to their limit loads but are imperfection sensitive (shell-type behaviour), while EHS tubes with a moderate to high aspect ratio can carry loads higher than their limit loads (plate-type behaviour) and are imperfection insensitive. The slope of the ascending post-buckling path increases with the EHS aspect ratio and can reach values up to 40% of the slope of the linear primary path. The bound imperfection amplitude concept, separating the imperfection amplitude ranges where the EHS tube is sensitive and insensitive, is proposed. It is also found that, for increasing EHS aspect ratio, the compressive stresses grow and accumulate near the zones of minimum radius of curvature while the zones of maximum radius of curvature possess an approximately uniform and relatively low compressive stress level. Therefore, it is expected that an approach based on the effective width concept widely used for the evaluation of the strength of flat plates may be adapted to the design of EHS tubes with moderate to high aspect ratios.     

Buckling analysis of a cooling tower shell with measured and theoretically-modelled imperfections

Geometrical imperfections were measured using photogrammetric techniques on an existing reinforced concrete cooling tower shell. The imperfections, related to the radii of such a real shell, were used as input data to create a real shape of the cooling tower. Numerical analysis was carried out for three models: (P) perfect shell of revolution, (M) shell with measured imperfections, (T) shell with a theoretical imperfection corresponding to the primary buckling mode under dead load. The buckling analysis was related to the linearized eigenvalue problem of elastic shells. The shell midsurface was approximated by eight-node quadrilateral isoparametric finite elements. Computations were carried out using the ANKA computer code. Critical values of the load parameter enable confirmation of a partial correlation between existing imperfections and buckling modes under dead load. The most disadvantageous direction of the wind load application on the real shell was found, in order to evaluate the decrease in the load-carrying capacity of the cooling tower shell against buckling. Theoretically modelled imperfections give rather unrealistic values of buckling loads of the real shell.     

Ersatzimperfektionen für den numerischen Beulsicherheitsnachweis stählerner Schalentragwerke – State of the Art

Equivalent Geometric Imperfections for the Numerical Buckling Strength Verification of Steel Shell Structures – State of the Art. Steel shell structures are very imperfection‐sensitive. Therefore, the inevitable deviations from the nominal data of the resistance parameters have to be included in a numerical calculation of the load‐bearing capacity. Because steel shell structures are unique, representative statistical data about the arising imperfections during manufacturing, transport and erection are missing. Therefore, many imperfection assumptions of the codes are based on engineering considerations. The new Eurocode for steel shell structures allows a numerical buckling strength verification in explicit consideration of the effect of imperfections. The assumed imperfections are fundamental for the numerical buckling strength verification, because they have to cover the influence of all accidental imperfections of the structure in a consistent manner. In the contribution, an overview is given on the fundamental imperfection assumptions within the framework of the Eurocode. Still existing knowledge gaps are discussed at the example of the circular cylindrical shell. Hints for application are given.