Biosorption of reactive dye using acid-treated rice husk: factorial design analysis

A factorial experimental design technique was used to investigate the biosorption of reactive red RGB (lambda(max)=521 nm) from water solution on rice husk treated with nitric acid. Biosorption is favored because of abundance of biomass, low cost, reduced sludge compared to conventional treatment techniques and better decontamination efficiency from highly diluted solutions. Factorial design of experiments is employed to study the effect of four factors pH (2 and 7), temperature (20 and 40), adsorbent dosage (5 and 50mg/L) and initial concentration of the dye (50 and 250 mg/L) at two levels low and high. The efficiency of color removal was determined after 60 min of treatment. Main effects and interaction effects of the four factors were analyzed using statistical techniques. A regression model was suggested and it was found to fit the experimental data very well. The results were analyzed statistically using the Student's t-test, analysis of variance, F-test and lack of fit to define most important process variables affecting the percentage dye removal. The most significant variable was thus found to be pH.     

Investigation of Pb(II) adsorption onto pumice samples: application of optimization method based on fractional factorial design and response surface methodology

The adsorption of Pb(II) by pumice samples collected from the Mount Ararat region, located in eastern Turkey, was investigated in a batch system. The combined and individual effects of operating parameters on adsorption were analyzed using a multi-step response surface methodology. In the first step the most effective factors, which are initial Pb(II) concentration, pH, and temperature, were determined via fractional factorial design. Then the steepest ascent/descent followed by central composite design were used to interpret the optimum adsorption conditions for the highest Pb(II) removal. The optimum adsorption conditions were determined to be initial Pb(II) concentration of 84.30 mg/L, pH of 5.75, and temperature of 41.11 °C. At optimum conditions, the adsorption capacity of pumice for Pb(II) was found to be 7.46 mg/g according to a removal yield of 88.49 %. The obtained data agreed with a second-order rate expression and fit the Langmuir isotherm very well. The thermodynamic parameters such as ΔH°, ΔS°, and ΔG° for the Pb(II) adsorption were calculated at four different temperatures. The present results indicate that pumice is a suitable adsorbent material for adsorption of Pb(II) from aqueous solutions.     

The electromagnetic actuator design problem: a general and rational approach

This paper clearly delineates the problem of the design of electromagnetic actuators and presents it as an inverse problem. It discusses optimal formulations and explains the most general and rational way to solve this inverse problem. The methodology is based on the association of an exact interval global optimization algorithm and a new, more general analytical model that represents the structure and the composition of the actuators as well as their dimensions. The methodology can be considered both general and rational. The paper concludes with some practical examples of design that validate the approach.     

Application of fractional factorial design for green synthesis of cyano-modified silica nanoparticles: Chemometrics and multifarious response optimization

Cyano-functionalized spherical silica nanoparticles (SNPs) were synthesized via Stöber method. A 2?^k-p_IV–fractional factorial design (2^k-p_IV–FFD) was used to smartly prepare monodispersed evenly distributed SNPs. Six factors were considered; concentrations of tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS), 3-Cyanopropyltriethoxysilane (CPTS), water, and ammonia, reaction time (RT) and stirring time (ST). Two responses; particle size (PS, measured by SEM) and particle-size distribution (PSD, calculated as standard deviation, ±SD) were measured. Control charts were used to decide on impacts of linear and two-way interactions on both responses. Derringer’s function was used to consolidate these multifarious responses into a uniform execution characteristic. Both screening and optimization were always accompanied by ANOVA testing at a 95.0% confidence interval (CI). The ideal synthetic conditions were obtained from the composite desirability plots. Cyano-functionalized SNPs with an average PS of 474.04?±?86.71?nm were produced. Raman spectroscopy and FTIR were used to confirm the functionalization process. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to evaluate the thermal behavior of synthesized particles.     

Hydrodynamic tweezers: impact of design geometry on flow and microparticle trapping

Here we explore the role of microfabricated device geometry on frequency-dependent low Reynolds number steady streaming flow and particle trapping behavior. In our system, flow and particle trapping is induced near an obstruction or cavity located in an otherwise rectilinear oscillating flow of frequency ω and amplitude s in a fluid of kinematic viscosity ν. This work expands prior studies to characterize nine distinct obstruction/cavity geometries. The imaged microeddy flows show that the device geometry affects the eddy number, shape, structure, and strength. Comparison of measured particle trap locations with the computed eddy flow structure shows that particles trap closer to the wall than the eddy core. Trapping strength and location are controlled by the geometry and the oscillation frequency. In most cases, the trapping behavior is linearly proportional to the Stokes layer thickness, δ(AC) ~ O((ν/ω)(1/2)). We show that steady streaming in microfluidic eddies can be a flexible and versatile method for noncontact microparticle trapping, and hence we call this class of devices "hydrodynamic tweezers".     

Optimization of acyclovir oral tablets based on gastroretention technology: factorial design analysis and physicochemical characterization studies

The purpose of this research was to prepare a floating drug delivery system of acyclovir. Floating matrix tablets of acyclovir were developed to prolong gastric residence time and increase its bioavailability. The tablets were prepared by direct compression technique, using polymers such as hydroxypropylmethylcellulose 4000, Compritol 888. Sodium bicarbonate was used as a gas-generating agent. A 32 factorial design using the Design Expert Software (version 7.1.6) was applied to optimize the drug release profile systematically. The amounts of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose 4000 (X?) and Compritol 888 (X?) were selected as independent variables and the percentage drug released in 1 (Q?), 6 (Q?), and 12 (Q??) h as dependent variables. The results of factorial design indicated that a high level of both hydroxypropylmethylcellulose 4000 (X?) and Compritol 888 (X?) favors the preparation of floating controlled-release of acyclovir tablets. Also, a good correlation was observed between predicted and actual values of the dependent variables chosen for the study. By fitting the data into zero-order, first-order, and Higuchi models, we concluded that the release followed Higuchi diffusion kinetics. Storage of the prepared formulations at 40°C/75% relative humidity for 3 months showed no significant change in drug release profiles and buoyancy of the floating tablets. We can conclude that a combination of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose 4000, Compritol 888, and sodium bicarbonate can be used to increase the gastric residence time of the dosage form up to 12?h. These floating tablets seem to be a promising gastroretentive drug delivery system.     

Crashworthiness design optimization using successive response surface approximations

 Finite Element (FE) method is among the most powerful tools for crash analysis and simulation. Crashworthiness design of structural members requires repetitive and iterative application of FE simulation. This paper presents a crashworthiness design optimization methodology based on efficient and effective integration of optimization methods, FE simulations, and approximation methods. Optimization methods, although effective in general in solving structural design problems, loose their power in crashworthiness design. Objective and constraint functions in crashworthiness optimization problems are often non-smooth and highly non-linear in terms of design variables and follow from a computationally costly (FE) simulation. In this paper, a sequential approximate optimization method is utilized to deal with both the high computational cost and the non-smooth character. Crashworthiness optimization problem is divided into a series of simpler sub-problems, which are generated using approximations of objective and constraint functions. Approximations are constructed by using statistical model building technique, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and a Genetic algorithm. The approximate optimization method is applied to solve crashworthiness design problems. These include a cylinder, a simplified vehicle and New Jersey concrete barrier optimization. The results demonstrate that the method is efficient and effective in solving crashworthiness design optimization problems. Received: 30 January 2002 / Accepted: 12 July 2002 Sponsorship for this research by the Federal Highway Administration of US Department of Transportation is gratefully acknowledged. Dr. Nielen Stander at Livermore Software Technology Corporation is also gratefully acknowledged for providing subroutines to create D-optimal experimental designs and the simplified vehicle model.     

Phosphate removal from water by fly ash: factorial experimental design

The influence of three variables (phophate concentration, initial pH of solution (pH(0)) and the fly ash dosage) on the removal efficiency of phosphate (% E) and equilibrium pH of solution (pH(eq)) by using fly ash was studied by means of 2(3) full factorial experimental designs. The parameters coded as x(1), x(2) and x(3), consecutively(,) were used. The parameters were investigated at two levels (-1 and 1). The effects of these factors on dependent variables, namely, % E and pH(eq) were investigated. To determine the significance of effects, the analysis of variance with 95% confidence limits was used. It was shown that % E and pH(eq) obtained in this study were found to be 99.6% and 11.16, corresponding to the operating condition of 25 mg l(-1), 2 g l(-1) and 5.5 for the phosphate concentration, fly ash dosage and pH(0), respectively.     

Adaptive improved response surface method for reliability-based design optimization

Reliability-based design optimization (RBDO) requires the evaluation of probabilistic constraints (or reliability), which can be very time consuming. Therefore, a practical solution for efficient reliability analysis is needed. The response surface method (RSM) and dimension reduction (DR) are two well-known approximation methods that construct the probabilistic limit state functions for reliability analysis. This article proposes a new RSM-based approximation approach, named the adaptive improved response surface method (AIRSM), which uses the moving least-squares method in conjunction with a new weight function. AIRSM is tested with two simplified designs of experiments: saturated design and central composite design. Its performance on reliability analysis is compared with DR in terms of efficiency and accuracy in multiple RBDO test problems.     

Preparation and evaluation of insulin-loaded polylactide microspheres using factorial design

The aim of this work was to study the influence of the concentration and molecular weight of poly(DL-lactide) (PLA) on the characteristics and in vivo biological activity of protein-loaded microspheres. At the same time, an attempt was made to achieve further optimization of the formulation. In the study, insulin was chosen as a model of protein drugs. Nine formulations of injectable insulin-loaded PLA microspheres were prepared using an emulsification and solvent evaporation process according to a factorial design. The trapping efficiency, drug loading, and the drop percentages of blood glucose levels at 24 hr and 72 hr in mice were used to evaluate the formulations. The results showed that PLA molecular weight and, especially, PLA concentration exerted influences on the characteristics and in vivo biological activity of insulin-loaded microspheres. The drug-trapping efficiency increased with the increase of the polymer concentration. The drug loading decreased with the increase of the polymer concentration and was not obviously affected by PLA molecular weight. The drop percentage of blood glucose level at 24 hr increased with the increase of polymer concentration and molecular weight. At 72 hr, the drop percentages of blood glucose levels were slightly increased with the increase of PLA concentration and then significantly decreased after the PLA concentration was above 150 mg/ml. An optimized formulation was prepared with PLA-10k at a concentration of 200 mg/ml. The experimental values of the response variables were close to the predicted values. The results suggest that the in vivo release behavior should be taken into consideration in the design of protein-loaded PLA microspheres.     

Sorption of distillery spent wash onto fly ash: kinetics, mechanism, process design and factorial design

Batch and continuous experiments were performed for the sorption of distillery spent wash onto fly ash particles. The Freundlich and pseudo-second order equation were found to fit the equilibrium data perfectly. The Weber-Morris intraparticle diffusion isotherm equation was used to predict the sorption mechanism and the predicted equation for 10% dilution of spent wash sorption is q(t)=1.1344t(0.5)+33.304. The optimization using 2(3) factorial design of experiments provides optimal removal of color of 93% for dilution (5%), dosage of adsorbent (10g) and temperature (293K). The actual color removal at optimal conditions was 92.24%, confirms close to the factorial design results. The complete error analysis using six non-linear error functions: Chi-square (chi(2)); sum of square errors (SSE); composite fractional error function (HYBRD); derivative of Marquardt's percent standard deviation (MPSD); average relative error (ARE); sum of absolute errors (EABS) were calculated. Free energy of adsorption at 293K (DeltaG(0)=-1574.67J), enthalpy change (DeltaH(0)=-32.5487KJ) and entropy change (DeltaS(0)=105J/K) were calculated to predict the nature of adsorption. Adsorption studies in a packed column were evaluated using Bed depth service time model, Thomas model and Adams-Bohart model.     

Optimizing SLN and NLC by 22 full factorial design: Effect of homogenization technique

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) have been employed in pharmaceutics and biomedical formulations. The present study focuses on the optimization of the production process of SLN and NLC by High Shear Homogenization (HSH) and High Pressure Homogenization (HPH). To build up the surface response charts, a 2² full factorial design based on 2 independent variables was used to obtain an optimized formulation. The effects of the production process on the mean particle size, polydispersity index (PI) and zeta potential (ZP) were investigated. Optimized SLN were produced applying 20,000 rpm HSH and 500 bar HPH pressure and NLC process 15,000 rpm HSH and 700 bar HPH pressure, respectively. This factorial design study has proven to be a useful tool in optimizing SLN (~ 100 nm) and NLC (~ 300 nm) formulations. The present results highlight the benefit of applying statistical designs in the preparation of lipid nanoparticles.     

Magnetophoretic velocity modulation mass analysis of a single microparticle in an atmosphere

A new principle of the magnetophoretic velocity modulation mass analysis of microparticles, which can determine simultaneously the mass and magnetic susceptibility of a single microparticle, has been proposed, and the measurement system was constructed by applying a magnetophoretic force on a falling microparticle through a magnetic field gradient in an atmosphere. A polystyrene microparticle as a test particle adsorbed on a glass plate was selectively knocked off by a pulsed Nd:YAG laser impact into a narrow gap of pole pieces of permanent magnets having a magnetic field gradient with a maximum intensity of 850 T2 m(-1). The falling particle was irradiated by a He-Ne laser, and the scattered light was detected through a slit array mask as a function of time. A bundle of spiked signals of scattered light intensity was analyzed to obtain velocities, which gave acceleration and deceleration of the falling particle. On the basis of the equation of motion under the magnetic field gradient, the mass and magnetic susceptibility of the test particle were reasonably determined.     

Differential die-away analysis system response modeling and detector design

Differential die-away-analysis (DDAA) is a sensitive technique to detect presence of fissile materials such as and . DDAA uses a high-energy (14 MeV) pulsed neutron generator to interrogate a shipping container. The signature is a fast neutron signal hundreds of microseconds after the cessation of the neutron pulse. This fast neutron signal has decay time identical to the thermal neutron diffusion decay time of the inspected cargo. The theoretical aspects of a cargo inspection system based on the differential die-away technique are explored. A detailed mathematical model of the system is developed, and experimental results validating this model are presented.     

Process design for heat fusion of thermoplastic composites using molecular dynamics and a response surface method

This study investigates efficient optimization of heat fusion conditions between thermoplastics using molecular dynamics (MD) and a response surface method. The heat fusion process between polypropylene and polyethylene and the uniaxial elongation for evaluation of the interfacial bonding strength were modeled using coarse-grained MD simulation. To determine the optimal conditions of heat fusion, experimental points were selected on the basis of a central composite design, and a second-order polynomial response surface was created by setting temperature, pressure, and polymerization degree as explanatory variables and the strength of fused interface as the response. The obtained optimal solution under constrained conditions yielded the highest strength when compared with other experimental points and random points.     

The ergonomic design of workstations using virtual manufacturing and response surface methodology

The increasing use of computerized tools for virtual manufacturing in workstatin design has two main advantages over traditional methods first it enables the designer to examine a large number of design solutions; and second, simulation of the work task may be performedin order to obtain the values of various performance measures. In this paper a ne~ structural. methodology for the workstation design is presented. Factorial experiments and the response surface methodology are integrated 111 order to reduce the number of examined design solutions and obtain an estimate for the best design configuration With respect to multi-objective requirements.     

Playing with dimensions: rational design for heteroepitaxial p-n junctions

A design for a heteroepitaxial junction by the way of one-dimensional wurzite on a two-dimensional spinel structure in a low-temperature solution process was introduced, and it's capability was confirmed by successful fabrication of a diode consisting of p-type cobalt oxide (Co(3)O(4)) nanoplate/n-type zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorods, showing reasonable electrical performance. During thermal decomposition, the 30° rotated lattice orientation of Co(3)O(4) nanoplates from the orientation of β-Co(OH)(2) nanoplates was directly observed using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. The epitaxial relations and the surface stress-induced ZnO nanowire growth on Co(3)O(4) were well supported using the first-principles calculations. Over the large area, (0001) preferred oriented ZnO nanorods epitaxially grown on the (111) plane of Co(3)O(4) nanoplates were experimentally obtained. Using this epitaxial p-n junction, a diode was fabricated. The ideality factor, turn-on voltage, and rectifying ratio of the diode were measured to be 2.38, 2.5 V and 10(4), respectively.